Human Disturbance is the Major Determinant of the Habitat and Prey Preference of the Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in the Chitwan National Park, Nepal
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.2478/eje-2018-0002Keywords:
bengal tiger, prey preference, prey, chitwan, conservation, human disturbancesAbstract
We studied the impact of human disturbances on the habitat and prey preference of tiger by walking along transects in different sites of the Chitwan National Park, Nepal. The study found that tiger mostly preferred successional forests, grasslands and floodplains while avoiding the Shorea forests. Tiger strongly preferred prey abundant areas and strongly avoided the human disturbed areas. The prey preference of tiger obtained through scat analysis showed the highest preference of medium sized prey and less preference of large sized prey while avoidance of small, very small sized prey and domestic mammals. Tiger utilized higher numbers of domestic prey in the areas where there was high disturbance and less abundance of wild prey. The low preference of large sized prey and high preference of medium sized prey might be due to the low availability of large prey (e.g., sambar, gaur) and comparatively high availability of medium sized prey (e.g., chital, wild boar) in this area. For the effective use of habitat and prey, a predator like tiger needs considerable behavioural plasticity with the lonely wilderness. The regular disturbances caused by human activities could invite a dramatic change in the behavior of such predators which consequently increases conflict with people and declines in prey population. Hence, the habitat and prey preference of tiger not only depends on prey abundance but also depends on the degree of habitat disturbances in the human dominated landscapes like Chitwan. Proper management of parks by delineating the core areas as the prohibited zone and having only the buffer zone area as the free access zone for the local people to accommodate their daily needs, could help minimize the human disturbance in this park.
References
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for analysis of resource selection. Journal of Wildlife
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Andheria, A.P., Karanth, K.U. & Kumar, N.S. (2007) Diet and prey files
of three sympatric large carnivores in Bandipur Tiger Reserve,
India. Journal of Zoology (London), 273, 169–175.
Bhandari, S., Chalise, M. & Pokharel, C. (2017) Diet of Bengal Tigers
(Panthera tigris tigris) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. European
Journal of Ecology, 3(1), 80–84.
Bhattarai B.P. & Kindlmann P. (2012) Habitat heterogeneity as the key
determinant of the abundance and habitat preference of prey
species of tiger in the Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Acta Theriologica,
57, 89–97.
Bhattarai B.P. & Kindlmann P. (2013) Effect of human disturbance on
the prey of tiger in the Chitwan National Park – Implications for
park management. Journal of Environmental Management, 131,
343–350.
Biknevicius, A.R. & Van Valkenburgh, B. (1996) Design for killing: craniodental
adaptations of predators. In: J.L. Gittleman (Ed.), Carnivore
behavior, ecology and evolution, (Vol. 2: 393–428). Ithaca,
NY, USA: Comstock Publishing Associates.
Biswas. S & Sankar. K. (2002) Prey abundance and food habits of tigers
in Pench National Park, Madhya Pradesh, India. Journal of Zoology
London, 256, 411–420.
Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P., Laake, J.L., Borchers, D.L.
& Thomas, L. (2004) Introduction to Distance Sampling: Estimating
Abundance of Biological Populations. Oxford University
Press, Oxford, pp 432.
Carter, N.H., Shrestha, B.K., Karki, J.B., Pradhan, N.M.B., & Liu, J.
(2012) Coexistence between wildlife and humans at fine spatial
scales. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 109 (38),
15360e15365.
CNP (2018) Biodiversity: http://www.chitwannationalpark.gov.np/index.
php/biodiversity (Accessed 21 February 2018).
Dhakal, M., Karki, M., Jnawali, S.R., Subedi, N., Pradhan, N.M.B., Malla,
S., Lamichhane, B.R., Pokheral, C.P., Thapa, G.J., Oglethorpe, J.,
Subba, S.A., Bajracharya, P.R., Yadav, H. (2014). Status of Tigers
and Prey in Nepal. Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal.
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from Serengeti carnivores. Journal of Animal Ecology, 67, 370–
386.
Edgaonkar, A.J. & Chellam, R. (1998) A preliminary study on the ecology
of the leopard, Panthera pardus fusca in the Sanjay Gandhi National
Park, Maharashtra. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun,
India, pp 39.
Ewer, R.F. (1973) The carnivores. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
Fedriani, J.M., Palomares, F. & Delibes, M. (1999) Niche relationships
among three sympatric Mediterranean carnivores. Oecologia,
121, 138–148.
Flux, J. (2017) Comparison of predation by two suburban cats in New
Zealand. European Journal of Ecology, 3(1), 85–90.
Garshelis, D.L. (2000) Delusions in habitat evaluation: measuring use,
selection, and importance. In: L.Boitani & T.K. Fuller (Eds.), Research
Techniques in Animal Ecology (pp. 111–164). Columbia
University Press, New York, USA.
Gittleman, J.L. (1985) Carnivore body size; ecological and taxonomical
correlates. Oecologica 67, 540–554.
Harihar, A., Chanchani, P., Sharma, R.K., Vattakaven, J., Gubbi, S., Pandav,
B., Noon, B. (2013). Conflating “co-occurrence” with “coexistence”.
Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 110 (2).
E109eE109.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983) Large Mammalian Prey–Predator in Bandipur.
Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 80, 1–57.
Karanth K.U., Nichols, J.D., Kumar, N.S., Link, W.A. & Hines, J.E. (2004)
Tigers and their prey: predicting carnivore densities from prey
abundance. PNAS, 101(14), 4854–4858.
Karanth, K.U. & Nichols, J.D. (2000) Ecological status and conservation
of tigers in India. Final Technical Report to the Division of International
Conservation, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington
DC and Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, Center for Wildlife
Studies, Bangalore, India.
Karanth, K.U. & Sunquist, M.E.. (1995) Prey selection by tiger, leopard
and dhole in tropical forest. Journal of Animal Ecology, 64, 439-
450.
Karanth, K.U., Nichols, J.D., Seidensticker, J., Dinerstein, E., Smith,
J.L.D., McDougal, C., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Chundawat, S.S, Jhala Y.,
Sawarkar V.B. R. S. & Thapar, V. (2003) Science deficiency in conservation
practice: the monitoring of tiger populations in India.
Animal Conservation, 6, 141–146.
Khan, M.H. & Chivers, D.J. (2007) Habitat preferences of tigers Panthera
tigris in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh, and
management recommendations. Oryx, 41, 463–468.
Koppikar, B.R. & Sabins, J.H. (1975) Identification of hairs of some Indian
mammals. J. Bombay Natural History Society, 73, 5–20.
Macfaden, S.W. & Capen, D.E. (2001) Avian habitat relationships at multiple
scales in a New England forest. Forest Science, 48, 243–253.
Manly, B.F.J., McDonald, L.L., Thomas, D.L., McDonald, T.L. & Erickson,
W.P. (2002) Resource selection by animals: statistical design and
analysis for field studies. Kluwer academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
McDougal, C. (1977) The Face of the Tiger. Rivington Books, London.
Meriggi, A. & Lovari, S. (1996) A review of wolf predation in southern
Europe: does the wolf prefer wild prey to livestock? Journal of
Applied Ecology, 33, 1561–1571.
Meriggi, A., Rosa, P., Brangi, A. & Matteucci, C. (1991) Habitat use and
diet of the wolf in northern Italy. Acta Theriologica, 36, 141–151.
Mukherjee, S., Goyal, S.P. & Chellam, R. (1994a) Refined techniques for
the analysis of Asiatic Lion Panthera leo persica scats. Acta Theriologica,
39, 425–430.
Mukherjee, S., Goyal, S.P. & Chellam, R. (1994b) Standardization of scat
analysis techniques for leopard (Panthera pardus) in Gir National
Park, Western India. Mammalia, 58, 139–143.
Nams, V.O. (2011) Emergent Properties of Patch Shapes Affect Edge
Permeability to Animals. PLoS ONE 6(7), e21886. doi:10.1371/
journal.pone.0021886
Otis, D.L. (1997) Analysis of habitat selection studies with multiple
patches within cover types. Journal of Wildlife Management, 61,
1016–1022.
Palomares, F., Ferreras, P., Fedriani, J. and Delibes, M. (1996) Spatial relationships
between Iberian lynx and other carnivores in an area
of south-western Spain. Journal of Applied Ecology, 33, 5–13.
Reynolds, J.C., Aebischer, J.N. (1991) Comparison and quantification of
carnivore diet by faecal analysis: a critique, with recommendations,
based on a study of the fox (Vulpes vulpes). Mammalian
Review, 21, 97–122.
Schaller, G.B. (1967) The deer and the tiger: a study of wildlife in India.
Chicago University Press, Chicago, IL.
Seidensticker, J. & McDougal, C. (1993) Tiger predatory behaviour, ecology
and conservation. Symposium of Zoological Society of London,
65, 105–125.
Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. & Jackson, P. (1999) Overview. In: J. Seidensticker,
S. Christie & P. Jackson (Eds), Riding the tiger: tiger
conservation in human dominated landscapes. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Smith, J.L.D. (1984) Dispersal communication, and conservation strategies
for the tiger (Panthera tigris) in Royal Chitwan National
Park, Nepal. Page 155. Ph. D. Thesis. University of Minnesota, St.
Paul, Minnesota, USA.
Smith, J.L.D., McDougal, C., & Miquelle, D. (1989) Communication in
free-ranging tigers (Panthera tigris). Animal Behaviour, 37, 1–10.
Smith, J.L.D., Ahearn, S.C., & McDougal, C. (1998) Landscape analysis
of tiger distribution and habitat quality in Nepal. Conservation
Biology, 12, 1338–1346.
Smith, J.L.D., McDougal, C. & Sunquist, M.E. (1987a) Female land tenure
system in tigers. In: R.L. Tilson & U.S Seal, (Eds), Tigers of the
World: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management and Conservation
of an Endangered Species. Noyes Publications, Park Ride.
Stoen, O.G., & Wegge, P. (1996) Prey selection and prey removal by
tiger (Panthera tigris) during the dry season in lowland Nepal.
Mammalia, 60, 363–373.
Ter Braak, C.J.F. & Šmilauer, P. (2002) CANOCO Reference Manual and
CanoDraw for Windows User’s Guide: Software for Canonical
Community Ordination (version 4.5). Biometris, Wageningen/
České Budějovice.
Thapa, T.B. (2011) Habitat Suitability Evaluation for Leopard (Panthera
pardus) Using Remote Sensing and GIS in and Around Chitwan
National Park, Nepal. (PhD Thesis). Saurashtra Univesrsity, Rajkot,
Gujarat.
Weins, J.A. (1993) Fat times, lean times and competition among predators.
Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 8, 348–349.
Wikramanayake, E.D., Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C., Olson, D., Morrison, J.,
Lamoreux, J., McKnight, M., & Hedao, P. (2001) Terrestrial Ecoregions
of the Indo-Pacific: a conservation assessment. Island
Press: Washington, D.C.
for analysis of resource selection. Journal of Wildlife
Management, 50, 157–165.
Andheria, A.P., Karanth, K.U. & Kumar, N.S. (2007) Diet and prey files
of three sympatric large carnivores in Bandipur Tiger Reserve,
India. Journal of Zoology (London), 273, 169–175.
Bhandari, S., Chalise, M. & Pokharel, C. (2017) Diet of Bengal Tigers
(Panthera tigris tigris) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. European
Journal of Ecology, 3(1), 80–84.
Bhattarai B.P. & Kindlmann P. (2012) Habitat heterogeneity as the key
determinant of the abundance and habitat preference of prey
species of tiger in the Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Acta Theriologica,
57, 89–97.
Bhattarai B.P. & Kindlmann P. (2013) Effect of human disturbance on
the prey of tiger in the Chitwan National Park – Implications for
park management. Journal of Environmental Management, 131,
343–350.
Biknevicius, A.R. & Van Valkenburgh, B. (1996) Design for killing: craniodental
adaptations of predators. In: J.L. Gittleman (Ed.), Carnivore
behavior, ecology and evolution, (Vol. 2: 393–428). Ithaca,
NY, USA: Comstock Publishing Associates.
Biswas. S & Sankar. K. (2002) Prey abundance and food habits of tigers
in Pench National Park, Madhya Pradesh, India. Journal of Zoology
London, 256, 411–420.
Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P., Laake, J.L., Borchers, D.L.
& Thomas, L. (2004) Introduction to Distance Sampling: Estimating
Abundance of Biological Populations. Oxford University
Press, Oxford, pp 432.
Carter, N.H., Shrestha, B.K., Karki, J.B., Pradhan, N.M.B., & Liu, J.
(2012) Coexistence between wildlife and humans at fine spatial
scales. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 109 (38),
15360e15365.
CNP (2018) Biodiversity: http://www.chitwannationalpark.gov.np/index.
php/biodiversity (Accessed 21 February 2018).
Dhakal, M., Karki, M., Jnawali, S.R., Subedi, N., Pradhan, N.M.B., Malla,
S., Lamichhane, B.R., Pokheral, C.P., Thapa, G.J., Oglethorpe, J.,
Subba, S.A., Bajracharya, P.R., Yadav, H. (2014). Status of Tigers
and Prey in Nepal. Department of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Durant, S.M. (1998) Competition refuges and co-existence: an example
from Serengeti carnivores. Journal of Animal Ecology, 67, 370–
386.
Edgaonkar, A.J. & Chellam, R. (1998) A preliminary study on the ecology
of the leopard, Panthera pardus fusca in the Sanjay Gandhi National
Park, Maharashtra. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun,
India, pp 39.
Ewer, R.F. (1973) The carnivores. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
Fedriani, J.M., Palomares, F. & Delibes, M. (1999) Niche relationships
among three sympatric Mediterranean carnivores. Oecologia,
121, 138–148.
Flux, J. (2017) Comparison of predation by two suburban cats in New
Zealand. European Journal of Ecology, 3(1), 85–90.
Garshelis, D.L. (2000) Delusions in habitat evaluation: measuring use,
selection, and importance. In: L.Boitani & T.K. Fuller (Eds.), Research
Techniques in Animal Ecology (pp. 111–164). Columbia
University Press, New York, USA.
Gittleman, J.L. (1985) Carnivore body size; ecological and taxonomical
correlates. Oecologica 67, 540–554.
Harihar, A., Chanchani, P., Sharma, R.K., Vattakaven, J., Gubbi, S., Pandav,
B., Noon, B. (2013). Conflating “co-occurrence” with “coexistence”.
Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, 110 (2).
E109eE109.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983) Large Mammalian Prey–Predator in Bandipur.
Journal of Bombay Natural History Society, 80, 1–57.
Karanth K.U., Nichols, J.D., Kumar, N.S., Link, W.A. & Hines, J.E. (2004)
Tigers and their prey: predicting carnivore densities from prey
abundance. PNAS, 101(14), 4854–4858.
Karanth, K.U. & Nichols, J.D. (2000) Ecological status and conservation
of tigers in India. Final Technical Report to the Division of International
Conservation, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington
DC and Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, Center for Wildlife
Studies, Bangalore, India.
Karanth, K.U. & Sunquist, M.E.. (1995) Prey selection by tiger, leopard
and dhole in tropical forest. Journal of Animal Ecology, 64, 439-
450.
Karanth, K.U., Nichols, J.D., Seidensticker, J., Dinerstein, E., Smith,
J.L.D., McDougal, C., Johnsingh, A.J.T., Chundawat, S.S, Jhala Y.,
Sawarkar V.B. R. S. & Thapar, V. (2003) Science deficiency in conservation
practice: the monitoring of tiger populations in India.
Animal Conservation, 6, 141–146.
Khan, M.H. & Chivers, D.J. (2007) Habitat preferences of tigers Panthera
tigris in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh, and
management recommendations. Oryx, 41, 463–468.
Koppikar, B.R. & Sabins, J.H. (1975) Identification of hairs of some Indian
mammals. J. Bombay Natural History Society, 73, 5–20.
Macfaden, S.W. & Capen, D.E. (2001) Avian habitat relationships at multiple
scales in a New England forest. Forest Science, 48, 243–253.
Manly, B.F.J., McDonald, L.L., Thomas, D.L., McDonald, T.L. & Erickson,
W.P. (2002) Resource selection by animals: statistical design and
analysis for field studies. Kluwer academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
McDougal, C. (1977) The Face of the Tiger. Rivington Books, London.
Meriggi, A. & Lovari, S. (1996) A review of wolf predation in southern
Europe: does the wolf prefer wild prey to livestock? Journal of
Applied Ecology, 33, 1561–1571.
Meriggi, A., Rosa, P., Brangi, A. & Matteucci, C. (1991) Habitat use and
diet of the wolf in northern Italy. Acta Theriologica, 36, 141–151.
Mukherjee, S., Goyal, S.P. & Chellam, R. (1994a) Refined techniques for
the analysis of Asiatic Lion Panthera leo persica scats. Acta Theriologica,
39, 425–430.
Mukherjee, S., Goyal, S.P. & Chellam, R. (1994b) Standardization of scat
analysis techniques for leopard (Panthera pardus) in Gir National
Park, Western India. Mammalia, 58, 139–143.
Nams, V.O. (2011) Emergent Properties of Patch Shapes Affect Edge
Permeability to Animals. PLoS ONE 6(7), e21886. doi:10.1371/
journal.pone.0021886
Otis, D.L. (1997) Analysis of habitat selection studies with multiple
patches within cover types. Journal of Wildlife Management, 61,
1016–1022.
Palomares, F., Ferreras, P., Fedriani, J. and Delibes, M. (1996) Spatial relationships
between Iberian lynx and other carnivores in an area
of south-western Spain. Journal of Applied Ecology, 33, 5–13.
Reynolds, J.C., Aebischer, J.N. (1991) Comparison and quantification of
carnivore diet by faecal analysis: a critique, with recommendations,
based on a study of the fox (Vulpes vulpes). Mammalian
Review, 21, 97–122.
Schaller, G.B. (1967) The deer and the tiger: a study of wildlife in India.
Chicago University Press, Chicago, IL.
Seidensticker, J. & McDougal, C. (1993) Tiger predatory behaviour, ecology
and conservation. Symposium of Zoological Society of London,
65, 105–125.
Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. & Jackson, P. (1999) Overview. In: J. Seidensticker,
S. Christie & P. Jackson (Eds), Riding the tiger: tiger
conservation in human dominated landscapes. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Smith, J.L.D. (1984) Dispersal communication, and conservation strategies
for the tiger (Panthera tigris) in Royal Chitwan National
Park, Nepal. Page 155. Ph. D. Thesis. University of Minnesota, St.
Paul, Minnesota, USA.
Smith, J.L.D., McDougal, C., & Miquelle, D. (1989) Communication in
free-ranging tigers (Panthera tigris). Animal Behaviour, 37, 1–10.
Smith, J.L.D., Ahearn, S.C., & McDougal, C. (1998) Landscape analysis
of tiger distribution and habitat quality in Nepal. Conservation
Biology, 12, 1338–1346.
Smith, J.L.D., McDougal, C. & Sunquist, M.E. (1987a) Female land tenure
system in tigers. In: R.L. Tilson & U.S Seal, (Eds), Tigers of the
World: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management and Conservation
of an Endangered Species. Noyes Publications, Park Ride.
Stoen, O.G., & Wegge, P. (1996) Prey selection and prey removal by
tiger (Panthera tigris) during the dry season in lowland Nepal.
Mammalia, 60, 363–373.
Ter Braak, C.J.F. & Šmilauer, P. (2002) CANOCO Reference Manual and
CanoDraw for Windows User’s Guide: Software for Canonical
Community Ordination (version 4.5). Biometris, Wageningen/
České Budějovice.
Thapa, T.B. (2011) Habitat Suitability Evaluation for Leopard (Panthera
pardus) Using Remote Sensing and GIS in and Around Chitwan
National Park, Nepal. (PhD Thesis). Saurashtra Univesrsity, Rajkot,
Gujarat.
Weins, J.A. (1993) Fat times, lean times and competition among predators.
Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 8, 348–349.
Wikramanayake, E.D., Dinerstein, E., Loucks, C., Olson, D., Morrison, J.,
Lamoreux, J., McKnight, M., & Hedao, P. (2001) Terrestrial Ecoregions
of the Indo-Pacific: a conservation assessment. Island
Press: Washington, D.C.
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How to Cite
Bhattarai, B. P., & Kindlmann, P. (2018). Human Disturbance is the Major Determinant of the Habitat and Prey Preference of the Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) in the Chitwan National Park, Nepal. European Journal of Ecology, 4(1), 13-21. https://doi.org/10.2478/eje-2018-0002
