Men’s Perception of Raped Women: Test of the Sexually Transmitted Disease Hypothesis and the Cuckoldry Hypothesis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1515/eje-2016-0001Keywords:
cuckoldry, sexually transmitted disease, rape, STDAbstract
Rape is a recurrent adaptive problem of female humans and females of a number of non-human animals. Rape has various physiological and reproductive costs to the victim. The costs of rape are furthermore exaggerated by social rejection and blaming of a victim, particularly by men. The negative perception of raped women by men has received little attention from an evolutionary perspective. Across two independent studies, we investigated whether the risk of sexually transmitted diseases (the STD hypothesis, Hypothesis 1) or paternity uncertainty (the cuckoldry hypothesis, Hypothesis 2) influence the negative perception of raped women by men. Raped women received lower attractiveness score than non-raped women, especially in long-term mate attractiveness score. The perceived attractiveness of raped women was not influenced by the presence of experimentally manipulated STD cues on faces of putative rapists. Women raped by three men received lower attractiveness score than women raped by one man. These results provide stronger support for the cuckoldry hypothesis (Hypothesis 2) than for the STD hypothesis (Hypothesis 1). Single men perceived raped women as more attractive than men in a committed relationship (Hypothesis 3), suggesting that the mating opportunities mediate men’s perception of victims of rape. Overall, our results suggest that the risk of cuckoldry underlie the negative perception of victims of rape by men rather than the fear of disease transmission.
References
Abel, G. & Brunton, C. (2005) Young people’s use of condoms and their
perceived vulnerability to sexually transmitted infections. Australian
and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 29, 254-260.
Amacker, A. M. & Littleton, H. L. (2013) Perceptions of similarity and
responsibility attributions to an acquaintance sexual assault victim.
Violence Against Women 19, 1384-1407.
Anderson, K. G. (2006) How well does paternity confidence match actual
paternity? Current Anthropology, 47, 513-520.
Anderson, K. B., Cooper, H., & Okamura, L. (1997) Individual differences
and attitudes toward rape: A meta-analytic review. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 295-315.
Anderson, K. G., Kaplan, H., Lancaste, J. B. (2007) Confidence of paternity,
divorce, and investment in children by Albuquerque men.
Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 1-10.
Apicella, C. L. & Marlowe, E. W. (2004) Perceived mate fidelity and paternal
resemblance predict men’s investment in children. Evolution
and Human Behavior 25, 371-378.
Aral, S. O. (1999) Sexual network patterns as determinants of STD rates.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 26, 262-264.
Baker, R. & Bellis, M. A. (1995) Human sperm competition: copulation,
masturbation, and Infidelity. London, UK: Chapman and Hall.
Baugher, S. N., Elhai, J. D., Monroe, J. R. & Gray, M. J. (2010) Rape myth
acceptance, sexual trauma history, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 2036-2053.
Beck-Sagué, C. M. & Solomon, F. (1999) Sexually transmitted diseases
in abused children and adolescent and adult victims of rape: review
of selected literature. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 28 (Suppl
1), S74-83.
Birkhead, T. R. (1991) The Magpies: the behaviour and ecology of Blackbilled
and Yellow-billed Magpies. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, p.
270.
Birkhead, T. R. & Møller, A. P. (Eds.) 1998. Sperm competition and sexual
selection. Academic Press, London. p. 826.
Bridges, J. S. & McGrail, C. A. (1989) Attributions of responsibility for
date and stranger rape. Sex Roles, 21, 273-286.
Brody, S., Simard, A., & Hess, U. (2012) Men’s sexual activity and perceptions
of the facial attractiveness of unknown women. Journal
of Sexual Relationship Therapy, 27, 372-376.
Burt, M. R. (1980) Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 38, 217–230.
Buss, D. M. (2000) The dangerous passion: why jealousy is as necessary
as love and sex. Free Press, p. 272.
Camilleri, J. A. (2012) Evolutionary psychological perspectives on sexual
offending: From etiology to intervention. In: Shackelford, T. K. &
Weekes-Shackelford V. A. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of evolutionary
perspectives on violence, homicide, and war (pp. 173-196).
New York: Oxford University Press.
Campbell, R. & Wasco, S. M. (2005) Understanding rape and sexual assault:
20 years of progress and future directions. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 20, 127-131.
Campos, J. A. D. B., Zucoloto, M. L., Bonafe, F. S. S., Jordani, P. C., & Maroco,
J. (2011) Reliability and validity of self-reported burnout in
college students: A cross randomized comparison of paper-andpencil
vs. online administration. Computers and Human Behavior,
27, 1875-1883.
Chapel, T. (1980) The signs and symptoms of secondary syphilis. Sexually
Transmitted Diseases, 7, 161-164.
Clarke, P., Pradhan, G., van Schaik, C. (2009) Intersexual conflict in primates:
infanticide, paternity allocation, and the role of coercion.
In: Muller M. N. & Wrangham R.W. (Eds). Sexual coertion in primates
and humans: an evolutionary perspective on male aggression
against females. Harvard University Press; Cambridge, pp.
42-77.
Clarke-Stewart, A. & Brentano, C. (2006) Divorce. Causes and consequences.
Yale University Press, p. 347.
Cohen DK (2013) Explaining rape during civil war: Cross-national evidence
(1980-2009). American Political Science Review, 107, 461-
477.
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. I. (1985) Child abuse and other risks of not living
with both parents. Ethology & Sociobiology, 6, 155-176.
Davies, N. B. (2000) Cuckoos, cowbirds and other cheats. Academic
Press, London
Duncan, L. A., Schaller, M., & Park, J. H. (2009) Perceived vulnerability
to disease: Development and validation of a 15-item self-report
instrument. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 541-546.
Eng, T. R. & Butler, W. T. (1997) The hidden epidemic: Confronting sexually
transmitted diseases. National Academies Press; 1 edition,
p. 448.
Ewoldt, C. A., Monson, C. M., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2000). Attributions
about rape in a continuum of dissolving marital relationships.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 175–182.
Estreich, S., Forster, G. E., & Robinson, A. (1990) Sexually transmitted
diseases in rape victims. Genetics in Medicine, 66, 433-438.
Faravelli, C., Giugni, A., Salvatori, S., & Ricca, V. (2004) Psychopathology
after rape. American Journal of Psychology, 161, 1483-1485.
Flinn, M. V. (1992) Paternal care in a Caribbean village. In B. S. Hewlett,
ed., Father-Child Relations: Cultural and Biosocial Contexts. New
York: Aldine de Gruyter, pp. 57-84.
Flores, S. A. & Hartlaub, M. G. (1998) Reducing rape-myth acceptance in
male college students: A meta-analysis of intervention studies.
Journal of College Student Development, 39, 438-448.
Foa, E. B. & Rothbaum, B. O. (1998) Treating the trauma of rape. The
Guilford Press, New York (NY), USA, p. 253.
Forbes, G.B., Adams-Curtis, L. E., & White, K. B. (2004). First- and second-
generation measures of sexism, rape myths and related
beliefs, and hostility toward women - Their interrelationships
and association with college students’ experiences with dating
aggression and sexual coercion. Violence Against Women, 10,
236-261.
Gallup, G. G., Burch, R. L., & Petricone, L. R. (2012). Sexual conflict, infidelity
and vaginal/ semen chemistry. In: Shackelford, T. K. and
Weekes-Shackelford V. A. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of evolutionary
perspectives on violence, homicide, and war. New York: Oxford
University Press, pp. 217-232.
Geary, D. C. (2006) Coevolution of paternal investment and cuckoldry in
humans. In T. K. Shackelford & S. Platek (Eds.), Female infidelity
and paternal uncertainty. New York: Cambridge University Press,
pp.14-34.
Gharoro, E. P., Enabudoso, E. J., & Sodje, D. K. J. (2011) Non-consensual
sex in Benin. Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practise, 14, 190-194.
Goetz, A. T., Shackelford, T. K., Weekes-Shackelford, V. A., Euler, H. A.,
Hoier, S., Schmitt, D. P., LaMunyon, C. W. (2005) Mate retention,
semen displacement, and human sperm competition: A preliminary
investigation of tactics to prevent and correct female infidelity.
Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 749-763.
Gottschall, J. A., & Gottschall, T. A. (2003) Are per-incident rape-pregnancy
rates higher than per-incident consensual pregnancy
rates?. Human Nature, 14, 1-20.
Gould, J. E., Overstreet, J. W., & Hanson, F. W. (1984) Assessment of
human sperm function after recovery from the female reproductive
tract. Biology of Reproduction, 31, 888-894.
Grubb, A. & Turner, E. (2012). Attribution of blame in rape cases: A review
of the impact of rape myth acceptance, gender role conformity
and substance use on victim blaming. Aggression and
Violent Behavior, 17, 443-452.
Harari, H. & McDavid, J.W. (1973) Name stereotypes and teachers’ expectations.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 65, 222-225
Hayes, R. M., Lorenz, K., & Bell, K. A. (2013). Victim blaming others: rape
myth acceptance and the just world belief. Feminist Criminology,
8, 202-220.
Højsgaard, S., Halekoh, U., & Yan, J. (2006) The R Package geepack for
Generalized Estimating Equations. Journal of Statistical Software,
15, 1-11.
Holmes, M. M., Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Best, C. L. (1996) Raperelated
pregnancy estimates and descriptive characteristics from
a national sample of women. American Journal of Obstetrics &
Gynecology, 175, 320-325.
Houston, A. I. & Davies, N. B. (1985) The evolution of cooperation and
life history in the dunnock Prunella modularis. In: Sibley RM,
Smith RH (eds) Behavioural ecology: ecological consequences of
adaptive behaviour. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 471-487.
Jenny, C., Hooton, T. M., Bowers, A., Copass, M. K., Krieger, J. N., Hillier,
S. L., Kiviat, N., Corey, L., Stamm, W. E., & Holmes, K. K. (1990)
Sexually transmitted diseases in victims of rape. New England
Journal of Medicine, 322, 713-716.
Jo, S., Shin, J., Song, K. J., Kim, J. J., Hwang, K. R., & Bhally, H. (2011)
Prevalence and correlated factors of sexually transmitted diseases-
Chlamydia, Neisseria, Cytomegalovirus-in female rape
victims. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 8, 2317-2326.
Johnson, A. M., Mercer, C. H., Erens, B., Copas, A. J., McManus, S.,
Wellings, K., Fenton, K. A., Korovessis, C., Macdowall, W., Nanchahal,
K., Purdon, S., & Field, J. (2001) Sexual behaviour in Britain:
partnerships, practices, and HIV risk behaviours. Lancet 358,
1835-1842.
Jokela, M., Rotkirch, A., Rickard, I. J., Pettay, J., & Lummaa, V. (2010) Serial
monogamy increases reproductive success in men but not in
women. Behavioral Ecology, 21, 906-912.
Jones, B. C., Little, A. C., Penton-Voak, I. S., Tiddeman, B. P., Burt, D.
M., & Perrett, D. I. (2001) Facial symmetry and judgements of
apparent health support for a “good genes” explanation of the
attractiveness–symmetry relationship. Evolution and Human Behavior,
22, 417-429.
Kelly, J. T., Betancourt, T. S., Mukwege, D., Lipton, R., & VanRooyen, M.
J. (2011) Experiences of female survivors of sexual violence in
eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo: A mixed - methods
study. Conflict and Health, 5, 25.
Kenrick, D. T., Sadalla, E. K., Groth, G, & Trost, M. R. (1990) Evolution,
traits, and the stages of human courtship: Qualifying the parental
investment model. Journal of Personality, 58, 97-116.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Edmunds, C. N., & Seymour, A. K. (1992) Rape in America:
A report to the nation. Washington, DC: National Victim
Center.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Ruggie, K. J., Conoscenti, L. M., & Mc-
Cauley, J. (2007) Drug-facilitated, Incapacitated, and Forcible
Rape: A National Study. Final report submitted to the National
Institute of Justice, May 2007, NCJ 219181.
Kyriakis, K. P. & Hadjivassiliou, M. (2000) HIV-1 infection-associated risk
factors among sexually transmitted disease patients in Athens,
Greece - 1990 to 1996. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 27, 259-
265.
Lack, D. (1968) Ecological adaptations for breeding in birds. London:
Methuen.
Lalumière, M. L., Harris, G. T., Quinsey, V. L., & Rice, M. E. (2005) The
causes of rape: Understanding individual differences in male
propensity for sexual aggression. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Li, N., & Kenrick, D. T. (2006) Sex similarities and differences in preferences
for short-term mates: what, whether, and why. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 468-489.
Locke, S. D. & Gilbert, B. O. (1995) Method of psychological assessment,
self-disclosure, and experiential differences: A study of computer,
questionnaire, and interview assessment formats. Journal of
Social Behavior & Personality, 10, 255-263.
Lockhart, A. B., Thrall, P. H., & Antonovics, J. (1996) Sexually transmitted
diseases in animals: ecological and evolutionary implications.
Biological Reviews, 71, 415-471.
Lonsway, K. A. & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994) Rape myths: In review. Psychology
of Women Quarterly, 18, 133-164.
Lucchina, L. C., Wilson, M. E., & Drake, L. A. (1997) Dermatology and
the recently returned traveler: infectious diseases with dermatologic
manifestations. International Journal of Dermatology, 36,
167-181.
Maner, J. K., Gailliot, M. T., & Miller, S. L. (2009). The implicit cognition
of relationship maintenance: Inattention to attractive alternatives.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 174-179.
Maner, J. K., Rouby, D. A., & Gonzaga, G. (2008). Automatic inattention
to attractive alternatives: The evolved psychology of relationship
maintenance. Evolution & Human Behavior, 29, 343–349.
McCambridge, J., de Bruin, M., & Witton, J. (2012) The effects of demand
characteristics on research participant behaviours in nonlaboratory
settings: A systematic review. PLoS ONE 7: e39116.
McKibbin, W. F., Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2013) Investigating
human sperm competition in post-industrial ecologies: Cues to
sperm competition predict pornographic DVD sales rank. Behavioral
Ecology, 24, 819-823.
McKibbin, W. F. & Shackelford, T. K. (2011) Women’s avoidance of rape.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16, 437-443.
Miller, S. L. & Maner, J. (2010). Evolution and relationship maintenance:
fertility cues lead committed men to devalue relationship alternatives.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 1081-
1084.
Minear, M. & Park, D. C. (2004) A lifespan database of adult facial stimuli.
Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36,
630-633. https://pal.utdallas.edu/facedb/request/index
Mukiza-Gapere, J. & Ntozi, J. P. M. (1995) Impact of AIDS on marriage
patterns, customs and practices in Uganda. Health Transition Review,
5, 201-208.
Musch, J., Broder, A., & Klauer, K. C. (2001) Improving survey research
on the world-wide web using the randomized response technique.
In U. D. Reips and M. Bosnjak (Eds.), Dimensions of internet
science. Lengerich: Pabst Science Publishers, pp. 179-192.
NdinyaAchola, J. O., Ghee, A.E., Kihara, A. N., Krone, M. R., Plummer, F.
A., Fisher, L. D., & Holmes, K. K. (1997) High HIV prevalence, low
condom use and gender differences in sexual behaviour among
patients with STD-related complaints at a Nairobi primary health
care clinic. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 8, 506-514.
Neel, J. V & Weiss, K. M. (1975) The genetic structure of a tribal population,
the Yanomama Indians. 12. Biode-mographic studies.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 42, 25-52.
Neff, B. D. & Gross, M. R. (2001) Dynamic adjustment of parental care in
response to perceived paternity. Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London B, 268, 1559-1565.
Newcombe, P. A., van den Eynde, J., Hafner, D., & Jolly, L. (2008). Attributions
of responsibility for rape: Differences across familiarity
of situation, gender, and acceptance of rape myths. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology, 38, 1736-1754.
Nunes, K. L., Hermann, C. A., & Ratcliffe, K. (2013). Implicit and explicit
attitudes toward rape are associated with sexual aggression.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 2657-2675.
Park, J. H., Faulkner, J., & Schaller, M. (2003) Evolved disease-avoidance
processes and contemporary anti-social behavior: Prejudicial attitudes
and avoidance of people with physical disabilities. Journal
of Nonverbal Behavior, 27, 65-87.
Penneys NS (1995) Skin manifestation of AIDS. Informa Healthcare; 2
edition, 264 pp.
Perilloux, C., Duntley, J. D., & Buss, D. M. (2012) The costs of rape. Archives
of Sexual Behavior, 41, 1099-1106.
Perilloux, C., Duntley, J. D., & Buss, D. M. (2014) Blame attribution in
sexual victimization. Personality and Individual Differences, 63,
81-86.
Poiani, A. W. C. (2000) Sexually transmitted diseases: a possible cost of
promiscuity in birds? Auk 117, 1061-1065.
Pound, N. (2002) Male interest in visual cues of sperm competition risk.
Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 443-466.
Prokop, P. (2015) Perception of intensity of sperm competition on the
part of males. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 99-103.
Prokop, P., Fančovičová, J., & Fedor, P. (2014) Parasites enhance selfgrooming
behaviour and information retention in humans. Behavioural
Processes, 107, 42-46.
Prokop, P. & Fedor, P. (2013) Associations between body morphology,
mating success and mate preferences among Slovak males and
females. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, 70, 121-135.
R Core Team (2013) R: A language and environment for statistical computing.
R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.
URL http://www.R-project.org/.
Rosario, M., Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F., Hunter, J., & Gwadz, M. (1999) Sexual
risk behaviors of gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths in New York
City. AIDS Education and Prevention, 11, 476-496.
Rothstein, S. I. (1990) A model system for coevolution: avian brood parasitism.
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 21, 481-508.
Rupp, H., Librach, G. R., Feipel, N. C., Ketterson, E. D., Sengelaub, D. R.,
& Heiman, J. R. (2009) Partner status influences women’s interest
in the opposite sex. Human Nature, 20, 93-104.
Ryan, S., Oaten, M., Stevenson, R. J., & Case, T. I. (2012) Facial disfigurement
is treated like an infectious disease. Evolution and Human
Behavior, 33, 639-646.
Satterwhite, C. L., Kamb, M. L., Metcalf, C., Douglas, J. M., Malotte, C.
K., Paul, S., & Peterman, T. A. (2007) Changes in sexual behavior
and STD prevalence among heterosexual STD clinic attendees:
1993-1995 versus 1999-2000. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 34,
815-819.
Scelza, B. A. (2011) Female choice and extra-pair paternity in a traditional
human population. Biology Letters, 7, 889-891.
Schepard, A. (1989) AIDS and divorce. Family Law Quarterly, 23, 1-42.
Schmitt, D. P. (2005) Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A
48-nation study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 247-311.
Schwendinger, J. R., & Schwendinger, H. (1974). Rape myths: In legal,
theoretical, and everyday practice. Crime and Social Justice, 1,
18-26.
Selby, J. W., Calhoun, L. G., & Brock, T. A. (1977) Sex differences in the
social perception of rape victims. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 3, 412-415.
Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M., & Bennett, K. (2002a) Forgiveness or
breakup: Sex differences in responses to a partner’s infidelity.
Cognition and Emotion, 16, 299-307.
Shackelford, T. K., LeBlanc, G. J., Weekes-Shackelford, V. A., Bleske-
Rechek, A. L., Euler, H. A., & Hoier, S. (2002b) Psychological adaptation
to human sperm competition. Evolution and Human
Behavior, 23, 123-138.
Shackelford, T. K., Goetz, A. T., Guta, F. E., & Schmitt, D. P. (2006) Mate
guarding and frequent in-pair copulation in humans: Concurrent
or compensatory anti-cuckoldry tactics? Human Nature, 17,
239-252.
Shackelford, T. K., Pound, N., & Goetz, A. T. (2005) Psychological and
physiological adaptations to sperm competition in humans. Review
of General Psychology, 9, 228-248.
Shackelford, T. K., Goetz, A. T., LaMunyon, C. W., Quintus, B. J., & Weekes-
Shackelford, V. A. (2004) Sex differences in sexual psychology
produce sex similar preferences for a short-term mate. Archives
of Sexual Behavior, 33, 405-412.
Sheldon, B. C., & Ellegren, H. (1998) Paternal effort related to experimentally
manipulated paternity of male collared flycatchers.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 265, 1737-1742.
Simonson, K., & Subich, L. M. (1999). Rape perceptions as a function
of gender-role traditionality and victim–perpetrator association.
Sex Roles, 40, 617-634.
Smith, K. P. & Watkins, S. C. (2005) Perceptions of risk and strategies for
prevention: responses to HIV/AIDS in rural Malawi. Social Sciences
& Medicine, 60, 649-660.
Sommers, M. S., Zink, T., Baker, R. B., Fargo, J. D., Porter, J., Weybright,
D., Schafer, J. C. (2006) The effects of age and ethnicity on physical
injury from rape. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic and Neonatal
Nursing, 35, 199-207.
Thornhill, R. & Palmer, C. P. (2000) A natural history of rape. Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press.
Thrall, P. H., Antonovics, J., & Dobson, A. P. (2000) Sexually transmitted
diseases in polygynous mating systems: prevalence and impact
on reproductive success. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London B, 267, 1555-1563.
Tjaden, P. & Thoennes, N. (2000) Full report of the prevalence, incidence,
and consequences of violence against women: Findings
from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
Valera, F., Hoi, H., & Krištín, A. (2003) Male shrikes punish unfaithful
females. Behavioral Ecology, 14, 403-408.
Walby, S. & Allen, J. (2004) Domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking:
findings from the British Crime Survey. Home Office Research
Study 276. London: Home Office.
Wang, B., Li, X. M., Stanton, B., Fang, X. Y., Liang, G. J., Liu, H., Lin, D.,
Yang, H. (2007) Gender differences in HIV-related perceptions,
sexual risk behaviors, and history of sexually transmitted diseases
among Chinese migrants visiting public sexually transmitted
disease clinics. AIDS Patient Care STDS, 21, 57-68.
Whitley, R. J., Kimberlin, D. W., & Roizman, B. (1998) Herpes simplex
viruses. Clinical and Infectious Diseases, 26, 541-555.
Wolff, J. O. & Macdonald, D. W. (2004) Promiscuous females protect
their offspring. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19, 127-134.
Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B.,
Kilpatrick, D. G., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2011) Is reporting of rape on
the rise? A comparison of women with reported versus unreported
rape experiences in the National Women’s Study-Replication.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 807-832.
Zinzow, H. M., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B., Ruggiero,
K. J., Kilpatrick, D. G. (2010) The role of rape tactics in risk for
posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression: results
from a national sample of college women. Depression and Anxiety,
27, 708-715.
Zinzow, H. M., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B., Ruggiero,
K. J., Kilpatrick, D. G. (2012) Prevalence and risk of psychiatric
disorders as a function of variant rape histories: Results from a
national survey of women. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology,
47, 893-902.
Zuur, A., Ieno, E. N., Walker, N., Saveliev, A. A., & Smith, G. M. (2009)
Mixed Effects Models and Extensions in Ecology with R (Statistics
for Biology and Health). Springer, p. 574.
perceived vulnerability to sexually transmitted infections. Australian
and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 29, 254-260.
Amacker, A. M. & Littleton, H. L. (2013) Perceptions of similarity and
responsibility attributions to an acquaintance sexual assault victim.
Violence Against Women 19, 1384-1407.
Anderson, K. G. (2006) How well does paternity confidence match actual
paternity? Current Anthropology, 47, 513-520.
Anderson, K. B., Cooper, H., & Okamura, L. (1997) Individual differences
and attitudes toward rape: A meta-analytic review. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 295-315.
Anderson, K. G., Kaplan, H., Lancaste, J. B. (2007) Confidence of paternity,
divorce, and investment in children by Albuquerque men.
Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 1-10.
Apicella, C. L. & Marlowe, E. W. (2004) Perceived mate fidelity and paternal
resemblance predict men’s investment in children. Evolution
and Human Behavior 25, 371-378.
Aral, S. O. (1999) Sexual network patterns as determinants of STD rates.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 26, 262-264.
Baker, R. & Bellis, M. A. (1995) Human sperm competition: copulation,
masturbation, and Infidelity. London, UK: Chapman and Hall.
Baugher, S. N., Elhai, J. D., Monroe, J. R. & Gray, M. J. (2010) Rape myth
acceptance, sexual trauma history, and posttraumatic stress disorder.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 2036-2053.
Beck-Sagué, C. M. & Solomon, F. (1999) Sexually transmitted diseases
in abused children and adolescent and adult victims of rape: review
of selected literature. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 28 (Suppl
1), S74-83.
Birkhead, T. R. (1991) The Magpies: the behaviour and ecology of Blackbilled
and Yellow-billed Magpies. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, p.
270.
Birkhead, T. R. & Møller, A. P. (Eds.) 1998. Sperm competition and sexual
selection. Academic Press, London. p. 826.
Bridges, J. S. & McGrail, C. A. (1989) Attributions of responsibility for
date and stranger rape. Sex Roles, 21, 273-286.
Brody, S., Simard, A., & Hess, U. (2012) Men’s sexual activity and perceptions
of the facial attractiveness of unknown women. Journal
of Sexual Relationship Therapy, 27, 372-376.
Burt, M. R. (1980) Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 38, 217–230.
Buss, D. M. (2000) The dangerous passion: why jealousy is as necessary
as love and sex. Free Press, p. 272.
Camilleri, J. A. (2012) Evolutionary psychological perspectives on sexual
offending: From etiology to intervention. In: Shackelford, T. K. &
Weekes-Shackelford V. A. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of evolutionary
perspectives on violence, homicide, and war (pp. 173-196).
New York: Oxford University Press.
Campbell, R. & Wasco, S. M. (2005) Understanding rape and sexual assault:
20 years of progress and future directions. Journal of Interpersonal
Violence, 20, 127-131.
Campos, J. A. D. B., Zucoloto, M. L., Bonafe, F. S. S., Jordani, P. C., & Maroco,
J. (2011) Reliability and validity of self-reported burnout in
college students: A cross randomized comparison of paper-andpencil
vs. online administration. Computers and Human Behavior,
27, 1875-1883.
Chapel, T. (1980) The signs and symptoms of secondary syphilis. Sexually
Transmitted Diseases, 7, 161-164.
Clarke, P., Pradhan, G., van Schaik, C. (2009) Intersexual conflict in primates:
infanticide, paternity allocation, and the role of coercion.
In: Muller M. N. & Wrangham R.W. (Eds). Sexual coertion in primates
and humans: an evolutionary perspective on male aggression
against females. Harvard University Press; Cambridge, pp.
42-77.
Clarke-Stewart, A. & Brentano, C. (2006) Divorce. Causes and consequences.
Yale University Press, p. 347.
Cohen DK (2013) Explaining rape during civil war: Cross-national evidence
(1980-2009). American Political Science Review, 107, 461-
477.
Daly, M. & Wilson, M. I. (1985) Child abuse and other risks of not living
with both parents. Ethology & Sociobiology, 6, 155-176.
Davies, N. B. (2000) Cuckoos, cowbirds and other cheats. Academic
Press, London
Duncan, L. A., Schaller, M., & Park, J. H. (2009) Perceived vulnerability
to disease: Development and validation of a 15-item self-report
instrument. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 541-546.
Eng, T. R. & Butler, W. T. (1997) The hidden epidemic: Confronting sexually
transmitted diseases. National Academies Press; 1 edition,
p. 448.
Ewoldt, C. A., Monson, C. M., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2000). Attributions
about rape in a continuum of dissolving marital relationships.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 175–182.
Estreich, S., Forster, G. E., & Robinson, A. (1990) Sexually transmitted
diseases in rape victims. Genetics in Medicine, 66, 433-438.
Faravelli, C., Giugni, A., Salvatori, S., & Ricca, V. (2004) Psychopathology
after rape. American Journal of Psychology, 161, 1483-1485.
Flinn, M. V. (1992) Paternal care in a Caribbean village. In B. S. Hewlett,
ed., Father-Child Relations: Cultural and Biosocial Contexts. New
York: Aldine de Gruyter, pp. 57-84.
Flores, S. A. & Hartlaub, M. G. (1998) Reducing rape-myth acceptance in
male college students: A meta-analysis of intervention studies.
Journal of College Student Development, 39, 438-448.
Foa, E. B. & Rothbaum, B. O. (1998) Treating the trauma of rape. The
Guilford Press, New York (NY), USA, p. 253.
Forbes, G.B., Adams-Curtis, L. E., & White, K. B. (2004). First- and second-
generation measures of sexism, rape myths and related
beliefs, and hostility toward women - Their interrelationships
and association with college students’ experiences with dating
aggression and sexual coercion. Violence Against Women, 10,
236-261.
Gallup, G. G., Burch, R. L., & Petricone, L. R. (2012). Sexual conflict, infidelity
and vaginal/ semen chemistry. In: Shackelford, T. K. and
Weekes-Shackelford V. A. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of evolutionary
perspectives on violence, homicide, and war. New York: Oxford
University Press, pp. 217-232.
Geary, D. C. (2006) Coevolution of paternal investment and cuckoldry in
humans. In T. K. Shackelford & S. Platek (Eds.), Female infidelity
and paternal uncertainty. New York: Cambridge University Press,
pp.14-34.
Gharoro, E. P., Enabudoso, E. J., & Sodje, D. K. J. (2011) Non-consensual
sex in Benin. Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practise, 14, 190-194.
Goetz, A. T., Shackelford, T. K., Weekes-Shackelford, V. A., Euler, H. A.,
Hoier, S., Schmitt, D. P., LaMunyon, C. W. (2005) Mate retention,
semen displacement, and human sperm competition: A preliminary
investigation of tactics to prevent and correct female infidelity.
Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 749-763.
Gottschall, J. A., & Gottschall, T. A. (2003) Are per-incident rape-pregnancy
rates higher than per-incident consensual pregnancy
rates?. Human Nature, 14, 1-20.
Gould, J. E., Overstreet, J. W., & Hanson, F. W. (1984) Assessment of
human sperm function after recovery from the female reproductive
tract. Biology of Reproduction, 31, 888-894.
Grubb, A. & Turner, E. (2012). Attribution of blame in rape cases: A review
of the impact of rape myth acceptance, gender role conformity
and substance use on victim blaming. Aggression and
Violent Behavior, 17, 443-452.
Harari, H. & McDavid, J.W. (1973) Name stereotypes and teachers’ expectations.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 65, 222-225
Hayes, R. M., Lorenz, K., & Bell, K. A. (2013). Victim blaming others: rape
myth acceptance and the just world belief. Feminist Criminology,
8, 202-220.
Højsgaard, S., Halekoh, U., & Yan, J. (2006) The R Package geepack for
Generalized Estimating Equations. Journal of Statistical Software,
15, 1-11.
Holmes, M. M., Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Best, C. L. (1996) Raperelated
pregnancy estimates and descriptive characteristics from
a national sample of women. American Journal of Obstetrics &
Gynecology, 175, 320-325.
Houston, A. I. & Davies, N. B. (1985) The evolution of cooperation and
life history in the dunnock Prunella modularis. In: Sibley RM,
Smith RH (eds) Behavioural ecology: ecological consequences of
adaptive behaviour. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 471-487.
Jenny, C., Hooton, T. M., Bowers, A., Copass, M. K., Krieger, J. N., Hillier,
S. L., Kiviat, N., Corey, L., Stamm, W. E., & Holmes, K. K. (1990)
Sexually transmitted diseases in victims of rape. New England
Journal of Medicine, 322, 713-716.
Jo, S., Shin, J., Song, K. J., Kim, J. J., Hwang, K. R., & Bhally, H. (2011)
Prevalence and correlated factors of sexually transmitted diseases-
Chlamydia, Neisseria, Cytomegalovirus-in female rape
victims. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 8, 2317-2326.
Johnson, A. M., Mercer, C. H., Erens, B., Copas, A. J., McManus, S.,
Wellings, K., Fenton, K. A., Korovessis, C., Macdowall, W., Nanchahal,
K., Purdon, S., & Field, J. (2001) Sexual behaviour in Britain:
partnerships, practices, and HIV risk behaviours. Lancet 358,
1835-1842.
Jokela, M., Rotkirch, A., Rickard, I. J., Pettay, J., & Lummaa, V. (2010) Serial
monogamy increases reproductive success in men but not in
women. Behavioral Ecology, 21, 906-912.
Jones, B. C., Little, A. C., Penton-Voak, I. S., Tiddeman, B. P., Burt, D.
M., & Perrett, D. I. (2001) Facial symmetry and judgements of
apparent health support for a “good genes” explanation of the
attractiveness–symmetry relationship. Evolution and Human Behavior,
22, 417-429.
Kelly, J. T., Betancourt, T. S., Mukwege, D., Lipton, R., & VanRooyen, M.
J. (2011) Experiences of female survivors of sexual violence in
eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo: A mixed - methods
study. Conflict and Health, 5, 25.
Kenrick, D. T., Sadalla, E. K., Groth, G, & Trost, M. R. (1990) Evolution,
traits, and the stages of human courtship: Qualifying the parental
investment model. Journal of Personality, 58, 97-116.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Edmunds, C. N., & Seymour, A. K. (1992) Rape in America:
A report to the nation. Washington, DC: National Victim
Center.
Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Ruggie, K. J., Conoscenti, L. M., & Mc-
Cauley, J. (2007) Drug-facilitated, Incapacitated, and Forcible
Rape: A National Study. Final report submitted to the National
Institute of Justice, May 2007, NCJ 219181.
Kyriakis, K. P. & Hadjivassiliou, M. (2000) HIV-1 infection-associated risk
factors among sexually transmitted disease patients in Athens,
Greece - 1990 to 1996. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 27, 259-
265.
Lack, D. (1968) Ecological adaptations for breeding in birds. London:
Methuen.
Lalumière, M. L., Harris, G. T., Quinsey, V. L., & Rice, M. E. (2005) The
causes of rape: Understanding individual differences in male
propensity for sexual aggression. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Li, N., & Kenrick, D. T. (2006) Sex similarities and differences in preferences
for short-term mates: what, whether, and why. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 468-489.
Locke, S. D. & Gilbert, B. O. (1995) Method of psychological assessment,
self-disclosure, and experiential differences: A study of computer,
questionnaire, and interview assessment formats. Journal of
Social Behavior & Personality, 10, 255-263.
Lockhart, A. B., Thrall, P. H., & Antonovics, J. (1996) Sexually transmitted
diseases in animals: ecological and evolutionary implications.
Biological Reviews, 71, 415-471.
Lonsway, K. A. & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994) Rape myths: In review. Psychology
of Women Quarterly, 18, 133-164.
Lucchina, L. C., Wilson, M. E., & Drake, L. A. (1997) Dermatology and
the recently returned traveler: infectious diseases with dermatologic
manifestations. International Journal of Dermatology, 36,
167-181.
Maner, J. K., Gailliot, M. T., & Miller, S. L. (2009). The implicit cognition
of relationship maintenance: Inattention to attractive alternatives.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 174-179.
Maner, J. K., Rouby, D. A., & Gonzaga, G. (2008). Automatic inattention
to attractive alternatives: The evolved psychology of relationship
maintenance. Evolution & Human Behavior, 29, 343–349.
McCambridge, J., de Bruin, M., & Witton, J. (2012) The effects of demand
characteristics on research participant behaviours in nonlaboratory
settings: A systematic review. PLoS ONE 7: e39116.
McKibbin, W. F., Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2013) Investigating
human sperm competition in post-industrial ecologies: Cues to
sperm competition predict pornographic DVD sales rank. Behavioral
Ecology, 24, 819-823.
McKibbin, W. F. & Shackelford, T. K. (2011) Women’s avoidance of rape.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16, 437-443.
Miller, S. L. & Maner, J. (2010). Evolution and relationship maintenance:
fertility cues lead committed men to devalue relationship alternatives.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 1081-
1084.
Minear, M. & Park, D. C. (2004) A lifespan database of adult facial stimuli.
Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36,
630-633. https://pal.utdallas.edu/facedb/request/index
Mukiza-Gapere, J. & Ntozi, J. P. M. (1995) Impact of AIDS on marriage
patterns, customs and practices in Uganda. Health Transition Review,
5, 201-208.
Musch, J., Broder, A., & Klauer, K. C. (2001) Improving survey research
on the world-wide web using the randomized response technique.
In U. D. Reips and M. Bosnjak (Eds.), Dimensions of internet
science. Lengerich: Pabst Science Publishers, pp. 179-192.
NdinyaAchola, J. O., Ghee, A.E., Kihara, A. N., Krone, M. R., Plummer, F.
A., Fisher, L. D., & Holmes, K. K. (1997) High HIV prevalence, low
condom use and gender differences in sexual behaviour among
patients with STD-related complaints at a Nairobi primary health
care clinic. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 8, 506-514.
Neel, J. V & Weiss, K. M. (1975) The genetic structure of a tribal population,
the Yanomama Indians. 12. Biode-mographic studies.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 42, 25-52.
Neff, B. D. & Gross, M. R. (2001) Dynamic adjustment of parental care in
response to perceived paternity. Proceedings of the Royal Society
of London B, 268, 1559-1565.
Newcombe, P. A., van den Eynde, J., Hafner, D., & Jolly, L. (2008). Attributions
of responsibility for rape: Differences across familiarity
of situation, gender, and acceptance of rape myths. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology, 38, 1736-1754.
Nunes, K. L., Hermann, C. A., & Ratcliffe, K. (2013). Implicit and explicit
attitudes toward rape are associated with sexual aggression.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 2657-2675.
Park, J. H., Faulkner, J., & Schaller, M. (2003) Evolved disease-avoidance
processes and contemporary anti-social behavior: Prejudicial attitudes
and avoidance of people with physical disabilities. Journal
of Nonverbal Behavior, 27, 65-87.
Penneys NS (1995) Skin manifestation of AIDS. Informa Healthcare; 2
edition, 264 pp.
Perilloux, C., Duntley, J. D., & Buss, D. M. (2012) The costs of rape. Archives
of Sexual Behavior, 41, 1099-1106.
Perilloux, C., Duntley, J. D., & Buss, D. M. (2014) Blame attribution in
sexual victimization. Personality and Individual Differences, 63,
81-86.
Poiani, A. W. C. (2000) Sexually transmitted diseases: a possible cost of
promiscuity in birds? Auk 117, 1061-1065.
Pound, N. (2002) Male interest in visual cues of sperm competition risk.
Evolution and Human Behavior, 23, 443-466.
Prokop, P. (2015) Perception of intensity of sperm competition on the
part of males. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 99-103.
Prokop, P., Fančovičová, J., & Fedor, P. (2014) Parasites enhance selfgrooming
behaviour and information retention in humans. Behavioural
Processes, 107, 42-46.
Prokop, P. & Fedor, P. (2013) Associations between body morphology,
mating success and mate preferences among Slovak males and
females. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, 70, 121-135.
R Core Team (2013) R: A language and environment for statistical computing.
R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.
URL http://www.R-project.org/.
Rosario, M., Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F., Hunter, J., & Gwadz, M. (1999) Sexual
risk behaviors of gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths in New York
City. AIDS Education and Prevention, 11, 476-496.
Rothstein, S. I. (1990) A model system for coevolution: avian brood parasitism.
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 21, 481-508.
Rupp, H., Librach, G. R., Feipel, N. C., Ketterson, E. D., Sengelaub, D. R.,
& Heiman, J. R. (2009) Partner status influences women’s interest
in the opposite sex. Human Nature, 20, 93-104.
Ryan, S., Oaten, M., Stevenson, R. J., & Case, T. I. (2012) Facial disfigurement
is treated like an infectious disease. Evolution and Human
Behavior, 33, 639-646.
Satterwhite, C. L., Kamb, M. L., Metcalf, C., Douglas, J. M., Malotte, C.
K., Paul, S., & Peterman, T. A. (2007) Changes in sexual behavior
and STD prevalence among heterosexual STD clinic attendees:
1993-1995 versus 1999-2000. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 34,
815-819.
Scelza, B. A. (2011) Female choice and extra-pair paternity in a traditional
human population. Biology Letters, 7, 889-891.
Schepard, A. (1989) AIDS and divorce. Family Law Quarterly, 23, 1-42.
Schmitt, D. P. (2005) Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A
48-nation study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating.
Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 247-311.
Schwendinger, J. R., & Schwendinger, H. (1974). Rape myths: In legal,
theoretical, and everyday practice. Crime and Social Justice, 1,
18-26.
Selby, J. W., Calhoun, L. G., & Brock, T. A. (1977) Sex differences in the
social perception of rape victims. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 3, 412-415.
Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M., & Bennett, K. (2002a) Forgiveness or
breakup: Sex differences in responses to a partner’s infidelity.
Cognition and Emotion, 16, 299-307.
Shackelford, T. K., LeBlanc, G. J., Weekes-Shackelford, V. A., Bleske-
Rechek, A. L., Euler, H. A., & Hoier, S. (2002b) Psychological adaptation
to human sperm competition. Evolution and Human
Behavior, 23, 123-138.
Shackelford, T. K., Goetz, A. T., Guta, F. E., & Schmitt, D. P. (2006) Mate
guarding and frequent in-pair copulation in humans: Concurrent
or compensatory anti-cuckoldry tactics? Human Nature, 17,
239-252.
Shackelford, T. K., Pound, N., & Goetz, A. T. (2005) Psychological and
physiological adaptations to sperm competition in humans. Review
of General Psychology, 9, 228-248.
Shackelford, T. K., Goetz, A. T., LaMunyon, C. W., Quintus, B. J., & Weekes-
Shackelford, V. A. (2004) Sex differences in sexual psychology
produce sex similar preferences for a short-term mate. Archives
of Sexual Behavior, 33, 405-412.
Sheldon, B. C., & Ellegren, H. (1998) Paternal effort related to experimentally
manipulated paternity of male collared flycatchers.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 265, 1737-1742.
Simonson, K., & Subich, L. M. (1999). Rape perceptions as a function
of gender-role traditionality and victim–perpetrator association.
Sex Roles, 40, 617-634.
Smith, K. P. & Watkins, S. C. (2005) Perceptions of risk and strategies for
prevention: responses to HIV/AIDS in rural Malawi. Social Sciences
& Medicine, 60, 649-660.
Sommers, M. S., Zink, T., Baker, R. B., Fargo, J. D., Porter, J., Weybright,
D., Schafer, J. C. (2006) The effects of age and ethnicity on physical
injury from rape. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic and Neonatal
Nursing, 35, 199-207.
Thornhill, R. & Palmer, C. P. (2000) A natural history of rape. Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press.
Thrall, P. H., Antonovics, J., & Dobson, A. P. (2000) Sexually transmitted
diseases in polygynous mating systems: prevalence and impact
on reproductive success. Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London B, 267, 1555-1563.
Tjaden, P. & Thoennes, N. (2000) Full report of the prevalence, incidence,
and consequences of violence against women: Findings
from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
Valera, F., Hoi, H., & Krištín, A. (2003) Male shrikes punish unfaithful
females. Behavioral Ecology, 14, 403-408.
Walby, S. & Allen, J. (2004) Domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking:
findings from the British Crime Survey. Home Office Research
Study 276. London: Home Office.
Wang, B., Li, X. M., Stanton, B., Fang, X. Y., Liang, G. J., Liu, H., Lin, D.,
Yang, H. (2007) Gender differences in HIV-related perceptions,
sexual risk behaviors, and history of sexually transmitted diseases
among Chinese migrants visiting public sexually transmitted
disease clinics. AIDS Patient Care STDS, 21, 57-68.
Whitley, R. J., Kimberlin, D. W., & Roizman, B. (1998) Herpes simplex
viruses. Clinical and Infectious Diseases, 26, 541-555.
Wolff, J. O. & Macdonald, D. W. (2004) Promiscuous females protect
their offspring. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19, 127-134.
Wolitzky-Taylor, K. B., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B.,
Kilpatrick, D. G., & Ruggiero, K. J. (2011) Is reporting of rape on
the rise? A comparison of women with reported versus unreported
rape experiences in the National Women’s Study-Replication.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 807-832.
Zinzow, H. M., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B., Ruggiero,
K. J., Kilpatrick, D. G. (2010) The role of rape tactics in risk for
posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression: results
from a national sample of college women. Depression and Anxiety,
27, 708-715.
Zinzow, H. M., Resnick, H. S., McCauley, J. L., Amstadter, A. B., Ruggiero,
K. J., Kilpatrick, D. G. (2012) Prevalence and risk of psychiatric
disorders as a function of variant rape histories: Results from a
national survey of women. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology,
47, 893-902.
Zuur, A., Ieno, E. N., Walker, N., Saveliev, A. A., & Smith, G. M. (2009)
Mixed Effects Models and Extensions in Ecology with R (Statistics
for Biology and Health). Springer, p. 574.
Downloads
Published
2016-06-01
Issue
Section
Articles
License
Copyright (c) 2016 Pavol Prokop, Ladislav Pekarik
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright in their articles.
Articles in the European Journal of Ecology published 2020 and after are made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
Articles in the European Journal of Ecology published 2015-2019 are made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 license.
How to Cite
Prokop, P., & Pekarik, L. (2016). Men’s Perception of Raped Women: Test of the Sexually Transmitted Disease Hypothesis and the Cuckoldry Hypothesis. European Journal of Ecology, 2(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1515/eje-2016-0001
