Global analysis of threat status reveals higher extinction risk in tropical than in temperate bird sister species
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1515/eje-2016-0003Keywords:
Biodiversity, Bird, threat, species' traits, sister species, tropicsAbstract
Given increasing pressures upon biodiversity, identification of species’ traits related to elevated extinction risk is useful for more efficient allocation of limited resources for nature conservation. Despite its need, such a global analysis was lacking in the case of birds. Therefore, we performed this exercise for avian sister species using information about their global extinction risk from IUCN Red List. We focused on 113 pairs of sister species, each containing a threatened and an unthreatened species to factor out the effects of common evolutionary history on the revealed relationship. We collected data on five traits with expected relationships to species’ extinction risk based on previous studies performed at regional or national levels: breeding habitat (recognizing forest, grassland, wetland and oceanic species), latitudinal range position (temperate and tropics species), migration strategy (migratory and resident species), diet (carnivorous, insectivorous, herbivorous and omnivorous species) and body mass. We related the extinction risk using IUCN threat level categories to species’ traits using generalised linear mixed effects models expecting lower risk for forest, temperate, omnivorous and smaller-bodied species. Our expectation was confirmed only in the case of latitudinal range position, as we revealed higher threat level for tropical than for temperate species. This relationship was robust to different methods of threat level expression and cannot be explained by a simple association of high bird species richness with the tropical zone. Instead, it seems that tropical species are more threatened because of their intrinsic characteristics such as slow life histories, adaptations to stable environments and small geographic ranges. These characteristics are obviously disadvantageous in conditions of current human-induced environmental perturbations. Moreover, given the absence of habitat effects, our study indicates that such perturbations act across different tropical environments. Therefore, disproportionally higher conservation effort in the tropics compared to the temperate zone is urgently needed.
References
Ackerly, D.D. & Cornwell, W.K. (2007) A trait‐based approach to community
assembly: partitioning of species trait values into within‐and
among‐community components. Ecology Letters, 10, 135-145.
Atkinson, P.W., Adams, W.M., Brouwer, J., Buchanan, G., Cheke, R.A.,
Cresswell, W., et al. (2014) Defining the key wintering habitats
in the Sahel for declining African-Eurasian migrants using expert
assessment. Bird Conservation International, 24, 477-491.
Barnagaud, J.Y., Kissling, W.D., Sandel, B., Eiserhardt, W.L., Sekercioglu,
C.H., Enquist, B.J., et al. (2014) Ecological traits influence the
phylogenetic structure of bird species co-occurrences worldwide.
Ecology Letters, 17, 811-820.
Barnosky, A.D., Matzke, N., Tomiya, S., Wogan, G.O.U., Swartz, B., Quental,
T.B., et al. (2011): Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already
arrived? Nature, 471, 51-57.
Böhning-Gaese, K., Halbe, B., Lemoine, N., Oberrath, R. (2000) Factors
influencing the clutch size, number of broods and annual fecundity
of North American and European land birds. Evolutionary
Ecology Research, 2, 823-839.
Borregaard, M.K. & Rahbek, C. (2010) Causality of the relationship between
geographic distribuition and species abundance. Quarterly
Review of Biology, 85, 3-25.
Both, C., Van Turnhout, C.A.M., Bijlsma, R.G., Siepel, H., Van Strien, A.J.
& Foppen, R.P.B. (2010) Avian population consequences of climate
change are most severe for long-distance migrants in seasonal
habitats. Proceedings of The Royal Society of London B,
277, 1259-1266.
Bruderer, B. & Salewski, V. (2008) Evolution of bird migration in a biogeographical
context. Journal of Biogeography, 35, 1951-1959.
Butchart, S.H.M., Walpole, M., Collen, B., van Strien, A., Scharlemann,
J.P.W., Almond, R.E.A., et al. (2010) Global biodiversity: indicators
of recent declines. Science, 328, 1164-1168.
Cardillo, M. & Meijaard, E. (2012) Are comparative studies of extinction
risk useful for conservation? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 27,
167-171.
Chyralecki, P. & Selva, N. (2016) Ancient forest: spare it from clearance.
Nature, 530, 419.
Croxall, J.P., Butchart, S.H.M., Lascelles, B., Stattersfield, A.J., Sullivan,
B., Symes, A., et al. (2012) Seabird conservation status, threats
and priority actions: a global assessment. Bird Conservation International,
22, 1-34.
Davey, C.M., Chamberlain, D.E., Newson, S.E., Noble, D.G., & Johnston,
A. (2012) Rise of the generalists: Evidence for climate driven homogenization
in avian communities. Global Ecology and Biogeography,
21, 568-578.
Davies, R.G., Orme ,C.D.L., Storch, D., Olson, V.A., Thomas, G.H., Ross,
S.G., et al. (2007) Topography, energy and the global distribution
of bird species richness. Proceedings of The Royal Society of
London B, 274, 1189-1197.
del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. (1992-2001) Handbook of the birds
of the world (Vols. I-VII). Barcelona: Lynx editions.
del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Christie, D.A. (2003-2011) Handbook of the
birds of the world (Vols. VIII-XVI). Barcelona: Lynx editions.
Dirzo, R., Young, H.S., Galetti, M., Ceballos, G., Isaac, N.J.B. & Collen, B.
(2014) Defaunation in the Anthropocene. Science, 345, 401-406.
Donald, P.F., Green, R.E. & Heath, M.F. (2001) Agricultural intensification
and the collapse of Europe’s farmland bird populations. Proceedings
of The Royal Society of London B, 268, 25-29.
Dynesius, M. & Jansson, R. (2000) Evolutionary consequences of changes
in species’ geographical distributions driven by Milankovitch
climate oscillations. Proceedings of The National Academy of
Sciences of The United States of America, 97, 9115-9120.
Estrada, A., Meireles, C., Morales-Castilla, I., Poschlod, P., Vieites, D.,
Araujo, M.B., et al. (2015) Species’ intrinsic traits inform their
range limitations and vulnerability under environmental change.
Global Ecology and Biogeography, 24, 849-858.
Fjeldså, J., Bowie, R.C.K. & Rahbek, C. (2012) The role of mountain
ranges in the diversification of birds. Annual Review of Ecology,
Evolution and Systematics, 43, 249-265.
Foley, J.A., Ramankutty, N. & Brauman. K.A. (2011) Solutions for a cultivated
planet. Nature, 478, 337-342.
Gibson, L., Lee, T.M., Koh, L.P., Brook, B.W., Gardner, T.A., Barlow, J., et
al. (2011) Primary forests are irreplaceable for sustaining tropical
biodiversity. Nature, 478, 378-381.
Greenberg, R. & Marra, P.P. (2005) Birds of two worlds: the ecology
and evolution of migration. Baltimore: John Hopkins University
Press.
Hansen, M.C., Potapov, P.V., Moore, R., Hancher, M., Turubanova, S.A.,
Tyukavina, A., et al. (2013) High-resolution global maps of 21stcentury
forest cover change. Science, 342, 850-853.
Hoffmann, M., Hilton-Taylor, C., Angulo, A., Böhm, M., Brooks, T.M.,
Butchart, S.H.M., et al., 2010. The impact of conservation on the
status of the world’s vertebrates. Science, 330, 1503-1509.
Hurlbert, A.H. & Jetz, W. (2007) Species richness, hotspots, and the
scale dependence of range maps in ecology and conservation.
Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences of The United
States of America, 104, 13384-13389.
Janssen, R. & Rutz, D. (2011) Bioenergy for sustainable development in
Africa. New York: Springer.
Janzen, D.H. (1967) Why mountain passes are higher in the tropics?
American Naturalist, 101, 233-249.
Jenkins, C.N., Pimm, S.L. & Joppa, L.N. (2013) Global patterns of terrestrial
vertebrate diversity and conservation. Proceedings of The
National Academy of Sciences of The United States of America,
110, E2602-E2610.
Jiguet, F., Gadot, A.S., Julliard, R., Newson, S.E. & Couvet, D. (2007) Climate
envelope, life history traits and the resilience of birds facing
global change. Global Change Biology, 13, 1672-1684.
Kamp, J., Urazaliev, R., Donald, P.F. & Hölzel, N. (2011) Post-Soviet agricultural
change predicts future declines after recent recovery in
Eurasian steppe bird populations. Biological Conservation, 144,
2607-2614.
Koleček, J., Albrecht, T. & Reif, J. (2014a) Predictors of extinction risk of
passerine birds in a Central European country. Animal Conservation,
17, 498-506.
Koleček, J., Schleuning, M., Burfield, I.J., Báldi, A., Böhning-Gaese, K.,
Devictor, V., et al. (2014b): Birds protected by national legislation
show improved population trends in Eastern Europe. Biological
Conservation, 172, 109-116.
Laiolo, P., Dondero, F., Ciliento, E. & Rolando, A. (2004) Consequences
of pastoral abandonment for the structure and diversity of the
alpine avifauna. Journal of Applied Ecology, 41, 294-304.
Laurance, W.F., Sayer, J. & Cassman, K.G. (2014) Agricultural expansion
and its impacts on tropical nature. Trends in Ecology and Evolution,
29, 107-116.
Mace, G.M., Collar, N.J., Gaston, K.J., Hilton-Taylor, C., Akcakaya, H.R.,
Leader-Williams, N., et al. (2008) Quantification of extinction
risk: IUCN’s system for classifying threatened species. Conservation
Biology, 22, 1424-1442.
Manne, L.L., Brooks, T.M. & Pimm, S.L. (1999) Relative risk of extinction
of passerine birds on continents and islands. Nature, 399,
258-261.
Manne, L.L. & Pimm, S.L. (2001) Beyond eight forms of rarity: which
species are threatened and which will be next? Animal Conservation,
4, 221-229.
McGill, B.J. (2008) Exploring predictions of abundance from body mass
using hierarchical comparative approaches. American Naturalist,
172, 88-101.
Newton, I. (2003) The speciation and biogeography of birds. London:
Academic Press.
Orme, C.D.L, Davies, R.G., Burgess, M., Eigenbrod, F., Pickup, N., Olson,
V.A., et al. (2005) Global hotspots of species richness are not
congruent with endemism or threat. Nature, 436, 1016-1019.
Orme, C.D.L., Davies, R.G., Olson, V.A., Thomas, G.H., Ding, T.S., Rasmussen,
P.C., et al. (2006) Global patterns of geographic range
size in birds. PLoS Biology, 4, 1276-1283.
Owens, I.P.F. & Bennett, P.M. (2000) Ecological basis of extinction risk
in birds: habitat loss versus human persecution and introduced predators. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences of
The United States of America, 97, 12144-12148.
Pearman, P.B., Lavergne, S., Roquet, C., Wuest, R., Zimmermann, N.E. &
Thuiller W. (2014) Phylogenetic patterns of climatic, habitat and
trophic niches in a European avian assemblage. Global Ecology
and Biogeography, 23, 414-424.
Pigot, A.L. & Tobias, J.A. (2013) Species interactions constrain geographic
range expansion over evolutionary time. Ecology Letters,
16, 330-338.
Pimm, S.L., Jenkins, C.N., Abell, R., Brooks, T.M., Gittleman, J.L., Joppa,
L.N., et al. (2014) The biodiversity of species and their rates of
extinction, distribution, and protection. Science, 344, 987.
Reif, J., Vermouzek, Z., Voříšek, P., Šťastný, K., Bejček, V., Flousek, J.
(2010) Population changes in Czech passerines are predicted by
their life-history and ecological traits. Ibis, 152, 610-621.
Ricklefs, R.E. (2007) History and diversity: explorations at the intersection
of ecology and evolution. American Naturalist, 170, S56-
S70.
Sandel, B., Arge, L., Dalsgaard, B., Davies, R.G., Gaston, K.J., Sutherland,
W.J., et al. (2011) The ionfluence of late Quaternary climatechange
velocity on species endemism. Science, 334, 660-664.
Sæther, B.E., Lande, R., Engen, S., Weimerskirch, H., Lillegard, L., Altwegg,
R., et al. (2005) Generation time and temporal scaling of
bird population dynamics. Nature, 436, 99-102.
Sibley, C.G. & Monroe, B.L. (1990) Distribution and taxonomy of birds of
the world. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Sirami, C. & Monadjem, A. (2012) Changes in bird communities in Swaziland
savannas between 1998 and 2008 owing to shrub encroachment.
Diversity and Distributions, 18, 390-400.
Šizling, A.L., Storch, D. & Keil, P. (2009) Rapoport’s rule, species tolerances,
and the latitudinal diversity gradient: geometric considerations.
Ecology, 90, 3575-3586.
Sodhi, N.S., Butler, R., Laurance, W.F. & Gibson, L. (2011) Conservation
successes at micro-, meso- and macroscales. Trends in Ecology
and Evolution, 26, 585-594.
Sol, D., Maspons, J., Vall-llosera, M., Bartomeus, I., Garcia-Pena, G.E.,
Pinol, J., et al. (2012) Unraveling the life history of successful invaders.
Science, 337, 580-583.
Sterling, S.M., Ducharne, A. & Polcher, J. (2013) The impact of global
land-cover change on the terrestrial water cycle. Nature Climate
Change, 3, 385-390.
Stevens, G.C. (1989) The latitudinal gradient in geographic range - how
so many species coexist in the tropics. American Naturalist, 133,
240-256.
Storch, D. (2000) Rapoport effect and speciation/extinction rates in the
tropics. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 15, 514.
Stutchbury, B.J.M. & Morton, E.S. (2001) Behavioral ecology of tropical
birds. London: Academic Press.
Trivino, M., Cabeza, M., Thuiller, W., Hickler, T. & Araujo, M.B. (2013)
Risk assessment for Iberian birds under global change. Biological
Conservation, 168, 192-200.
Vickery, J.A., Ewing, S.R., Smith, K.W., Pain, D.J., Bairlein, F., Škorpilová,
J., et al. (2014) The decline of Afro-Palaearctic migrants and an
assessment of potential causes. Ibis, 156, 1-22.
Webb, T.J. & Gaston, K.J. (2003) On the heritability of geographic range
sizes. American Naturalist, 161, 553-566.
Wesolowski, T. (2005) Virtual conservation: How the European Union is
turning a blind eye to its vanishing primeval forests. Conservation
Biology, 19, 1349-1358.
Wilcove, D.S., Giam, X., Edwards, D.P., Fisher, B. & Koh, L.P. (2014) Navjot’s
nightmare revisited: logging, agriculture, and biodiversity
in Southeast Asia. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 28, 531-540.
Zwarts, L., Bijlsma, R.G., Van der Kamp, J. & Wymenga, E. (2009) Living
on the Edge: wetlands and birds in a changing Sahel. Zeist: KNNV
Publishing.
assembly: partitioning of species trait values into within‐and
among‐community components. Ecology Letters, 10, 135-145.
Atkinson, P.W., Adams, W.M., Brouwer, J., Buchanan, G., Cheke, R.A.,
Cresswell, W., et al. (2014) Defining the key wintering habitats
in the Sahel for declining African-Eurasian migrants using expert
assessment. Bird Conservation International, 24, 477-491.
Barnagaud, J.Y., Kissling, W.D., Sandel, B., Eiserhardt, W.L., Sekercioglu,
C.H., Enquist, B.J., et al. (2014) Ecological traits influence the
phylogenetic structure of bird species co-occurrences worldwide.
Ecology Letters, 17, 811-820.
Barnosky, A.D., Matzke, N., Tomiya, S., Wogan, G.O.U., Swartz, B., Quental,
T.B., et al. (2011): Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already
arrived? Nature, 471, 51-57.
Böhning-Gaese, K., Halbe, B., Lemoine, N., Oberrath, R. (2000) Factors
influencing the clutch size, number of broods and annual fecundity
of North American and European land birds. Evolutionary
Ecology Research, 2, 823-839.
Borregaard, M.K. & Rahbek, C. (2010) Causality of the relationship between
geographic distribuition and species abundance. Quarterly
Review of Biology, 85, 3-25.
Both, C., Van Turnhout, C.A.M., Bijlsma, R.G., Siepel, H., Van Strien, A.J.
& Foppen, R.P.B. (2010) Avian population consequences of climate
change are most severe for long-distance migrants in seasonal
habitats. Proceedings of The Royal Society of London B,
277, 1259-1266.
Bruderer, B. & Salewski, V. (2008) Evolution of bird migration in a biogeographical
context. Journal of Biogeography, 35, 1951-1959.
Butchart, S.H.M., Walpole, M., Collen, B., van Strien, A., Scharlemann,
J.P.W., Almond, R.E.A., et al. (2010) Global biodiversity: indicators
of recent declines. Science, 328, 1164-1168.
Cardillo, M. & Meijaard, E. (2012) Are comparative studies of extinction
risk useful for conservation? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 27,
167-171.
Chyralecki, P. & Selva, N. (2016) Ancient forest: spare it from clearance.
Nature, 530, 419.
Croxall, J.P., Butchart, S.H.M., Lascelles, B., Stattersfield, A.J., Sullivan,
B., Symes, A., et al. (2012) Seabird conservation status, threats
and priority actions: a global assessment. Bird Conservation International,
22, 1-34.
Davey, C.M., Chamberlain, D.E., Newson, S.E., Noble, D.G., & Johnston,
A. (2012) Rise of the generalists: Evidence for climate driven homogenization
in avian communities. Global Ecology and Biogeography,
21, 568-578.
Davies, R.G., Orme ,C.D.L., Storch, D., Olson, V.A., Thomas, G.H., Ross,
S.G., et al. (2007) Topography, energy and the global distribution
of bird species richness. Proceedings of The Royal Society of
London B, 274, 1189-1197.
del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. (1992-2001) Handbook of the birds
of the world (Vols. I-VII). Barcelona: Lynx editions.
del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Christie, D.A. (2003-2011) Handbook of the
birds of the world (Vols. VIII-XVI). Barcelona: Lynx editions.
Dirzo, R., Young, H.S., Galetti, M., Ceballos, G., Isaac, N.J.B. & Collen, B.
(2014) Defaunation in the Anthropocene. Science, 345, 401-406.
Donald, P.F., Green, R.E. & Heath, M.F. (2001) Agricultural intensification
and the collapse of Europe’s farmland bird populations. Proceedings
of The Royal Society of London B, 268, 25-29.
Dynesius, M. & Jansson, R. (2000) Evolutionary consequences of changes
in species’ geographical distributions driven by Milankovitch
climate oscillations. Proceedings of The National Academy of
Sciences of The United States of America, 97, 9115-9120.
Estrada, A., Meireles, C., Morales-Castilla, I., Poschlod, P., Vieites, D.,
Araujo, M.B., et al. (2015) Species’ intrinsic traits inform their
range limitations and vulnerability under environmental change.
Global Ecology and Biogeography, 24, 849-858.
Fjeldså, J., Bowie, R.C.K. & Rahbek, C. (2012) The role of mountain
ranges in the diversification of birds. Annual Review of Ecology,
Evolution and Systematics, 43, 249-265.
Foley, J.A., Ramankutty, N. & Brauman. K.A. (2011) Solutions for a cultivated
planet. Nature, 478, 337-342.
Gibson, L., Lee, T.M., Koh, L.P., Brook, B.W., Gardner, T.A., Barlow, J., et
al. (2011) Primary forests are irreplaceable for sustaining tropical
biodiversity. Nature, 478, 378-381.
Greenberg, R. & Marra, P.P. (2005) Birds of two worlds: the ecology
and evolution of migration. Baltimore: John Hopkins University
Press.
Hansen, M.C., Potapov, P.V., Moore, R., Hancher, M., Turubanova, S.A.,
Tyukavina, A., et al. (2013) High-resolution global maps of 21stcentury
forest cover change. Science, 342, 850-853.
Hoffmann, M., Hilton-Taylor, C., Angulo, A., Böhm, M., Brooks, T.M.,
Butchart, S.H.M., et al., 2010. The impact of conservation on the
status of the world’s vertebrates. Science, 330, 1503-1509.
Hurlbert, A.H. & Jetz, W. (2007) Species richness, hotspots, and the
scale dependence of range maps in ecology and conservation.
Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences of The United
States of America, 104, 13384-13389.
Janssen, R. & Rutz, D. (2011) Bioenergy for sustainable development in
Africa. New York: Springer.
Janzen, D.H. (1967) Why mountain passes are higher in the tropics?
American Naturalist, 101, 233-249.
Jenkins, C.N., Pimm, S.L. & Joppa, L.N. (2013) Global patterns of terrestrial
vertebrate diversity and conservation. Proceedings of The
National Academy of Sciences of The United States of America,
110, E2602-E2610.
Jiguet, F., Gadot, A.S., Julliard, R., Newson, S.E. & Couvet, D. (2007) Climate
envelope, life history traits and the resilience of birds facing
global change. Global Change Biology, 13, 1672-1684.
Kamp, J., Urazaliev, R., Donald, P.F. & Hölzel, N. (2011) Post-Soviet agricultural
change predicts future declines after recent recovery in
Eurasian steppe bird populations. Biological Conservation, 144,
2607-2614.
Koleček, J., Albrecht, T. & Reif, J. (2014a) Predictors of extinction risk of
passerine birds in a Central European country. Animal Conservation,
17, 498-506.
Koleček, J., Schleuning, M., Burfield, I.J., Báldi, A., Böhning-Gaese, K.,
Devictor, V., et al. (2014b): Birds protected by national legislation
show improved population trends in Eastern Europe. Biological
Conservation, 172, 109-116.
Laiolo, P., Dondero, F., Ciliento, E. & Rolando, A. (2004) Consequences
of pastoral abandonment for the structure and diversity of the
alpine avifauna. Journal of Applied Ecology, 41, 294-304.
Laurance, W.F., Sayer, J. & Cassman, K.G. (2014) Agricultural expansion
and its impacts on tropical nature. Trends in Ecology and Evolution,
29, 107-116.
Mace, G.M., Collar, N.J., Gaston, K.J., Hilton-Taylor, C., Akcakaya, H.R.,
Leader-Williams, N., et al. (2008) Quantification of extinction
risk: IUCN’s system for classifying threatened species. Conservation
Biology, 22, 1424-1442.
Manne, L.L., Brooks, T.M. & Pimm, S.L. (1999) Relative risk of extinction
of passerine birds on continents and islands. Nature, 399,
258-261.
Manne, L.L. & Pimm, S.L. (2001) Beyond eight forms of rarity: which
species are threatened and which will be next? Animal Conservation,
4, 221-229.
McGill, B.J. (2008) Exploring predictions of abundance from body mass
using hierarchical comparative approaches. American Naturalist,
172, 88-101.
Newton, I. (2003) The speciation and biogeography of birds. London:
Academic Press.
Orme, C.D.L, Davies, R.G., Burgess, M., Eigenbrod, F., Pickup, N., Olson,
V.A., et al. (2005) Global hotspots of species richness are not
congruent with endemism or threat. Nature, 436, 1016-1019.
Orme, C.D.L., Davies, R.G., Olson, V.A., Thomas, G.H., Ding, T.S., Rasmussen,
P.C., et al. (2006) Global patterns of geographic range
size in birds. PLoS Biology, 4, 1276-1283.
Owens, I.P.F. & Bennett, P.M. (2000) Ecological basis of extinction risk
in birds: habitat loss versus human persecution and introduced predators. Proceedings of The National Academy of Sciences of
The United States of America, 97, 12144-12148.
Pearman, P.B., Lavergne, S., Roquet, C., Wuest, R., Zimmermann, N.E. &
Thuiller W. (2014) Phylogenetic patterns of climatic, habitat and
trophic niches in a European avian assemblage. Global Ecology
and Biogeography, 23, 414-424.
Pigot, A.L. & Tobias, J.A. (2013) Species interactions constrain geographic
range expansion over evolutionary time. Ecology Letters,
16, 330-338.
Pimm, S.L., Jenkins, C.N., Abell, R., Brooks, T.M., Gittleman, J.L., Joppa,
L.N., et al. (2014) The biodiversity of species and their rates of
extinction, distribution, and protection. Science, 344, 987.
Reif, J., Vermouzek, Z., Voříšek, P., Šťastný, K., Bejček, V., Flousek, J.
(2010) Population changes in Czech passerines are predicted by
their life-history and ecological traits. Ibis, 152, 610-621.
Ricklefs, R.E. (2007) History and diversity: explorations at the intersection
of ecology and evolution. American Naturalist, 170, S56-
S70.
Sandel, B., Arge, L., Dalsgaard, B., Davies, R.G., Gaston, K.J., Sutherland,
W.J., et al. (2011) The ionfluence of late Quaternary climatechange
velocity on species endemism. Science, 334, 660-664.
Sæther, B.E., Lande, R., Engen, S., Weimerskirch, H., Lillegard, L., Altwegg,
R., et al. (2005) Generation time and temporal scaling of
bird population dynamics. Nature, 436, 99-102.
Sibley, C.G. & Monroe, B.L. (1990) Distribution and taxonomy of birds of
the world. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Sirami, C. & Monadjem, A. (2012) Changes in bird communities in Swaziland
savannas between 1998 and 2008 owing to shrub encroachment.
Diversity and Distributions, 18, 390-400.
Šizling, A.L., Storch, D. & Keil, P. (2009) Rapoport’s rule, species tolerances,
and the latitudinal diversity gradient: geometric considerations.
Ecology, 90, 3575-3586.
Sodhi, N.S., Butler, R., Laurance, W.F. & Gibson, L. (2011) Conservation
successes at micro-, meso- and macroscales. Trends in Ecology
and Evolution, 26, 585-594.
Sol, D., Maspons, J., Vall-llosera, M., Bartomeus, I., Garcia-Pena, G.E.,
Pinol, J., et al. (2012) Unraveling the life history of successful invaders.
Science, 337, 580-583.
Sterling, S.M., Ducharne, A. & Polcher, J. (2013) The impact of global
land-cover change on the terrestrial water cycle. Nature Climate
Change, 3, 385-390.
Stevens, G.C. (1989) The latitudinal gradient in geographic range - how
so many species coexist in the tropics. American Naturalist, 133,
240-256.
Storch, D. (2000) Rapoport effect and speciation/extinction rates in the
tropics. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 15, 514.
Stutchbury, B.J.M. & Morton, E.S. (2001) Behavioral ecology of tropical
birds. London: Academic Press.
Trivino, M., Cabeza, M., Thuiller, W., Hickler, T. & Araujo, M.B. (2013)
Risk assessment for Iberian birds under global change. Biological
Conservation, 168, 192-200.
Vickery, J.A., Ewing, S.R., Smith, K.W., Pain, D.J., Bairlein, F., Škorpilová,
J., et al. (2014) The decline of Afro-Palaearctic migrants and an
assessment of potential causes. Ibis, 156, 1-22.
Webb, T.J. & Gaston, K.J. (2003) On the heritability of geographic range
sizes. American Naturalist, 161, 553-566.
Wesolowski, T. (2005) Virtual conservation: How the European Union is
turning a blind eye to its vanishing primeval forests. Conservation
Biology, 19, 1349-1358.
Wilcove, D.S., Giam, X., Edwards, D.P., Fisher, B. & Koh, L.P. (2014) Navjot’s
nightmare revisited: logging, agriculture, and biodiversity
in Southeast Asia. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 28, 531-540.
Zwarts, L., Bijlsma, R.G., Van der Kamp, J. & Wymenga, E. (2009) Living
on the Edge: wetlands and birds in a changing Sahel. Zeist: KNNV
Publishing.
Downloads
Published
2019-07-09
Issue
Section
Articles
License
Copyright (c) 2019 Jiří Reif, Klára Štěpánková
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright in their articles.
Articles in the European Journal of Ecology published 2020 and after are made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license.
Articles in the European Journal of Ecology published 2015-2019 are made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 license.
How to Cite
Reif, J., & Štěpánková, K. (2019). Global analysis of threat status reveals higher extinction risk in tropical than in temperate bird sister species. European Journal of Ecology, 2(1), 21-34. https://doi.org/10.1515/eje-2016-0003
