Discriminating between nesting and non-nesting habitat in a vulnerable bird species: Implications for behavioural ecology
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.2478/eje-2019-0003Keywords:
Turtle dove, Streptopelia turtur, habitat occupancy, agroforestry system, MoroccoAbstract
Nowadays, partitioning amongst nesting and non-nesting habitats is not much studied. Here, I investigate whether or not the turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) nesting habitats overlap with those used for other purposes in a North African agroforestry system. A total of 33 nest points and 33 turtle dove presence points were considered. The study, conducted in May to June 2017, attempted to determine the factors that may play a role in discriminating between the nesting habitats and non-nesting habitats. I used a linear discriminant analysis (LDA) to test the relevance of proximity of food resources, forest edge and human presence variables in the distribution of the species. The results show substantial segregation in the habitats selected for nesting and those selected for other uses [average distance was 1129.69 ± 169.40 m (n = 66) with a maximum of 1518.6 m and a minimum of 617.72 m], with selection depending primarily on the proximity to forest edge and feeding areas. I discuss these findings and their implications on behavioural ecology and future researches of this vulnerable species. I suggest guidelines for future studies that will seek to better understand the behavioural dynamics of turtle doves in the Mediterranean agroforestry systems. This can only be done when disturbance covariates, such as: (i) forest logging, (ii) cereal harvesting and (iii) hunting and predation pressures, were imperatively taken into account.
References
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Barrientos, R., Valera, F., Barbosa, A., Carrillo, C.M. & Moreno, E. (2009) Plasticity of nest-site selection in the trumpeter finch: A comparison between two different habitats. Acta Oecologica, 35 (4), 499–506.
Block, W.M. & Brennan, L.A. (1993) The habitat concept in ornithology: Theory and applications. Current Ornithology, 11: 35–91. Bibby, C.J., Burgess, N.D., Hill, D.A. & Mustoe, S.H. (2000) Bird census techniques, 2nd edn. Academic Press, New York.
Browne, S.J. & Aebischer, N.J. (2003) Habitat use, foraging ecology and diet of turtle doves Streptopelia turtur in Britain. Ibis, 145, 572–582.
Browne, S. & Aebischer, N. (2004) Temporal changes in the breeding ecology of European turtle doves Streptopelia turtur in Britain, and implications for conservation. Ibis, 146, 125–137.
Browne, S.J., Aebischer, N.J. & Crick, H.Q.P. (2005) Breeding ecology of Turtle Doves Streptopelia turtur in Britain during the period 1941–2000: an analysis of BTO nest record cards, Bird Study, 52(1), 1–9.
Cherkaoui, S.I., Dakki, M., Selmi, S., Rguibi Idrissi, H. & Thévenot, M. (2007) Les oiseaux de la subéraie de la Maamora (Maroc): phénologie du peuplement, statut des espèces nicheuses et évolution depuis le début du vingtième siècle. Alauda, 75, 3–20.
De Buruaga, M.F., Onrubia, A., Fernandez-Garcia, J.M., Campos, M.A., Canales, F. & Unamuno, J.M. (2012) Breeding habitat use and conservation status of the turtle dove Streptopelia turtur in Northern Spain. Ardeola, 59, 291–300.
Dias, S., Moreira, F., Beja, P., Carvalho, M., Gordinho, L., Reino, L., Oliveira, V. & Rego, F. (2013) Landscape effects on large scale abundance patterns of turtle doves Streptopelia turtur in Portugal. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 59, 510–541.
Dunn, J.C. & Morris, A.J. (2012) Which features of UK farmland are important in retaining territories of the rapidly declining turtle dove Streptopelia turtur? Bird Study, 59, 394–402.
Dunn, J.C., Hamer, K.C. & Benton, T.G. (2010) Fear for the family has negative consequences: indirect effects of nest predators on chick growth in a farmland bird. Journal of Applied Ecology, 47, 994–1002.
Dunn, J.C., Morris, A.J. & Grice P.V. (2015) Testing bespoke management of foraging habitat for European turtle doves Streptopelia turtur. Journal for Nature Conservation, 25, 23–34.
Dunn, J.C., Grice, P. & Morris, A.J. (2016) Post-fledging habitat selection in a rapidly declining farmland bird, the European turtle dove Streptopelia turtur. Bird Conservation International, 27(1), 45–57.
Eraud, C., Rivière, M., Lormée, H., Fox, J.W., Ducamp, J.J. & Boutin, J.M. (2013) Migration routes and staging areas of Trans-Saharan Turtle Doves appraised from light-level geolocators. PLoS ONE, 8(3), e59396.
Evens, R., Beenaerts, N., Neyens, T., Witters, N., Smeets, K. & Artois T. (2018) Proximity of breeding and foraging areas affects foraging effort of a crepuscular, insectivorous bird. Scientific Reports, 8. 10.1038/s41598-018-21321-0.
Fisher, I., Ashpole, J., Scallan, D., Proud, T. & Carboneras, C. (compilers) (2018) International Single Species Action Plan for the conservation of the European Turtle-dove Streptopelia turtur (2018 to 2028). European Commission Technical Report xxx-2018.
Gillings, S. & Fuller, R.J. (1998) Changes in bird populations on sample lowland English farms in relation to loss of hedgerows and other noncrop habitats. Oecologia, 116, 120–127.
Gutiérrez-Galán, A. & Alonso, C. (2016) European Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur diet composition in Southern Spain: the role of wild seeds in Mediterranean forest areas, Bird Study, 63(4), 490–499.
Gutierrez-Galan, A., Alonso, L.S. & González, A.C. (2018) Foraging habitat requirements of European Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur in a Mediterranean forest landscape. Acta Ornithologica, 53, 143–154.
Hanane, S. (2003) Suivi de la reproduction de la tourterelle des bois (Streptopelia turtur) dans la région de Taroudant au cours de l’année 2002. Rapport, Département des Eaux et Forêts et à la Lutte Contre la Désertification (Div. Rec. Exp. For). 19pp.
Hanane, S. (2012) Do age and type of plantings affect turtle dove Streptopelia turtur nest placement in olive agro-ecosystems? Ethology,
Ecology and Evolution, 24, 284–293.
Hanane, S. (2014) Plasticity in nest placement of the turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur): experimental evidence from Moroccan agroecosystems. Avian Biology Research, 7(2), 1–9.
Hanane, S. (2015) Nest-niche differentiation in two sympatric Streptopelia species from a North African agricultural area: the role of human presence. Ecological Research, 30, 573–580.
Hanane, S. (2016a) Effects of orchard type and breeding period on turtle dove nest density in irrigated agroecosystems. Bird Study, 63, 141–145.
Hanane, S. (2016b) Effects of location, orchard type, laying period and nest position on the reproductive performance of turtle doves (Streptopelia turtur) on intensively cultivated farmland. Avian Research, 7, 4.
Hanane, S. (2017) The European turtle-dove Streptopelia turtur in Northwest Africa: a review of current knowledge and priorities for future research. Ardeola, 64(2), 273–287.
Hanane, S. (2018) Multi-scale turtle dove nest habitat selection in a Mediterranean agroforestry landscape: implications for the conservation of a vulnerable species. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 64 (4), 1-9.
Hanane, S. & Baamal, L. (2011) Are Moroccan fruit orchards suitable breeding habitats for turtle doves Streptopelia turtur? Bird Study, 58, 57–67.
Hanane, S. & Yassin, M. (2017) Nest-niche differentiation in two sympatric columbid species from a Mediterranean Tetraclinis woodland: considerations for forest management. Acta Oecologica, 78, 47–52.
Hanane, S., Cherkaoui, I., Magri, N. & Yassin, M. (2018) Bird species richness in artificial plantations and natural forests in a North African agroforestry system: assessment and implications. Agroforestry Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0281-z.
Haut Commissariat aux Eaux et Forêts et à la Lutte Contre la Désertification (HCEFLCD) (2013) Rapport annuel de la chasse saison 2012/2013. 38 pp
Hinsley, S.A., Bellamy, P.E., Newton, I., Sparks, T.H. (1995) Habitat and landscape factors influencing the presence of individual breeding bird species in woodland fragments. Journal Avian Biology, 26, 94–104.
Hinsley, S.A. & Bellamy, P.E. (2000) The influence of hedge structure, management and landscape context on the value of hedgerows to birds: a review. Journal of Wildlife Management, 60, 33–49.
Kafi, F., Hanane, S., Bensouilah, T., Zeraoula, A., Brahmia, H. & Houhamdi, M. (2015) Les facteurs déterminants le succès de reproduction de la Tourterelle des bois (Streptopelia turtur) dans un milieu agricole Nord-Africain. Rev d’Écologie (Terre Vie) 70, 271–279.
Lormée, H., Boutin, JM., Pinaud, D., Bidault, H. & Eraud, C. (2016) Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur migration routes and wintering areas revealed using satellite telemetry. Bird Study, 63(3), 425–429.
Marx, M., Korner-Nievergelt, F. & Quillfeldt, P. (2016) Analysis of Ring Recoveries of European Turtle Doves Streptopelia turtur — Flyways, Migration Timing and Origin Areas of Hunted Birds. Acta Ornithologica, 51(1), 55–70.
Mezquida, ET. & Marone, L. (2002) Microhabitat structure and avian nest predation risk in an open Argentinean woodland: an experimental study. Acta Oecologica, 23, 313–320.
Niemc, A., Remisiewicz, M., Avni, J., Underhill L.G. (2018), Sexual dimorphism in adult Little Stints (Calidris minuta) revealed by DNA sexing and discriminant analysis. PeerJ 6:e5367; DOI 10.7717/peerj.5367.
Pearse, A.T., Cavitt, J.E. & Cully, J.F. (2004) Effects of food supplementation on female nest attentiveness and incubation mate feeding in two sympatric wren species. Wilson Bulletin, 116(1), 23–30.
Peiro, V. (1990) Aspectos de la reproduccion de la Tortola comun (Streptopelia turtur) en Madrid. Mediterranean Series Biology, 12, 89–96.
Penloup, A., Martin, J.L., Gory, G., Brunstein, D., Bretagnolle, V. & Gory, G. (1997) Distribution and Breeding Success of Pallid Swifts, Apus pallidus, on Mediterranean Islands: Nest Predation by the Roof Rat, Rattus rattus, and Nest Site Quality. Oikos, 80, 78. 10.2307/3546518.
Quantum GIS Development Team (2017) QGIS Geographic Information System, Version 2.18.14-Las Palmas. Open Source Geospatial Foundation, Chicago.
Quinn, G.P. & Keough, M.J. (2002) Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. R Development Core Team (2013) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. ISBN 3-900051-07-0, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna. http://www.R-project.org.
Reino, L., Beja, P., Osborne, P.E., Morgado, R., Fabiao, A. & Rotenberry, J.T. (2009) Distance to edges, edge contrast and landscape fragmentation: interactions affecting farmland birds around forest plantations. Biological Conservation, 142(4), 824–838.
Rice, W.R. (1989) Analyzing tables of statistical tests. Evolution 43, 223e225. Rocha, G. & Quillfeldt, P. (2015) Effect of supplementary food on age ratios of European turtle doves (Streptopelia turtur L.). Animal Biodiversity and Conservation, 38, 11–21.
Rocha, G. & Hidalgo, S. (2002) La tórtola común Streptopelia turtur. Análisis de los factores que afectan a su status. Cáceres. Universidad de Extremadura, Servicio de Publicaciones.
Rogers, P.C. (1996) Disturbance ecology and forest management: a review of the literature. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, p 16.
Sweeney, O., Wilson, M., Irwin, S., Kelly, T. & O’Halloran, J. (2010) Are bird density, species richness and community structure similar between native woodlands and non-native plantations in an area with a generalist bird fauna? Biodiversity Conservation, 19, 2329–2342.
Tabachnick, B.G. & Fidell, L.S. (2001) Using Multivariate Statistics. 4th Edition, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Thévenot, M., Vernon, R. & Bergier, P. (2003) The birds of Morocco. Tring: British Ornithologists’ Union/British Ornithologists’ Club.
Underwood, A.J. (1996) Experiments in Ecology. Their Logical Design and Interpretation Using Analysis of Variance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Vernon, R., Thévenot, M., Bergier, P. & Rousseau, E. (2005) Argan woodland, an important bird habitat in Morocco. ABC Bulletin, 12, 134–146.
Wiehn, J. & Korpimäki, E. (1997) Food Limitation on Brood Size: Experimental Evidence in the Eurasian Kestrel. Ecology, 78. 10.2307/2265943.
Yahiaoui, K., Arab, K., Belhamra, M., Browne, S.J., Boutin, J.M. & Moali, A. (2014) Habitat occupancy by European turtle dove (Strepto 22 pelia turtur) in the Isser Valley. Algeria. Revue d’Ecologie (Terre Vie), 69(3–4), 234–246.
Yanes, M. & Oñate, J.J. (1996) Does nest predation affect nest-site selection in larks. Rev. D’Ecologie (Terre Vie) 51, 259–267.
Yanes, M., Herranz, J. & Suarez, F. (1996) Nest microhabitat selection in larks from a European Semiarid shrub steppe. The role of sunlight and predation. Journal of Arid Environments, 32, 469–478.
Zar, J.H. (1984) Biostatistical Analysis. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, p. 717.
Bakaloudis, D.E., Vlachos, C.G., Chatzinikos, E., Bontzorlos, V. & Papakosta, M. (2009) Breeding habitats preferences of the turtledove (Streptopelia turtur) in the Dadia-Soufli National Park and its implications for management. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 55, 597–602.
Barrientos, R., Valera, F., Barbosa, A., Carrillo, C.M. & Moreno, E. (2009) Plasticity of nest-site selection in the trumpeter finch: A comparison between two different habitats. Acta Oecologica, 35 (4), 499–506.
Block, W.M. & Brennan, L.A. (1993) The habitat concept in ornithology: Theory and applications. Current Ornithology, 11: 35–91. Bibby, C.J., Burgess, N.D., Hill, D.A. & Mustoe, S.H. (2000) Bird census techniques, 2nd edn. Academic Press, New York.
Browne, S.J. & Aebischer, N.J. (2003) Habitat use, foraging ecology and diet of turtle doves Streptopelia turtur in Britain. Ibis, 145, 572–582.
Browne, S. & Aebischer, N. (2004) Temporal changes in the breeding ecology of European turtle doves Streptopelia turtur in Britain, and implications for conservation. Ibis, 146, 125–137.
Browne, S.J., Aebischer, N.J. & Crick, H.Q.P. (2005) Breeding ecology of Turtle Doves Streptopelia turtur in Britain during the period 1941–2000: an analysis of BTO nest record cards, Bird Study, 52(1), 1–9.
Cherkaoui, S.I., Dakki, M., Selmi, S., Rguibi Idrissi, H. & Thévenot, M. (2007) Les oiseaux de la subéraie de la Maamora (Maroc): phénologie du peuplement, statut des espèces nicheuses et évolution depuis le début du vingtième siècle. Alauda, 75, 3–20.
De Buruaga, M.F., Onrubia, A., Fernandez-Garcia, J.M., Campos, M.A., Canales, F. & Unamuno, J.M. (2012) Breeding habitat use and conservation status of the turtle dove Streptopelia turtur in Northern Spain. Ardeola, 59, 291–300.
Dias, S., Moreira, F., Beja, P., Carvalho, M., Gordinho, L., Reino, L., Oliveira, V. & Rego, F. (2013) Landscape effects on large scale abundance patterns of turtle doves Streptopelia turtur in Portugal. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 59, 510–541.
Dunn, J.C. & Morris, A.J. (2012) Which features of UK farmland are important in retaining territories of the rapidly declining turtle dove Streptopelia turtur? Bird Study, 59, 394–402.
Dunn, J.C., Hamer, K.C. & Benton, T.G. (2010) Fear for the family has negative consequences: indirect effects of nest predators on chick growth in a farmland bird. Journal of Applied Ecology, 47, 994–1002.
Dunn, J.C., Morris, A.J. & Grice P.V. (2015) Testing bespoke management of foraging habitat for European turtle doves Streptopelia turtur. Journal for Nature Conservation, 25, 23–34.
Dunn, J.C., Grice, P. & Morris, A.J. (2016) Post-fledging habitat selection in a rapidly declining farmland bird, the European turtle dove Streptopelia turtur. Bird Conservation International, 27(1), 45–57.
Eraud, C., Rivière, M., Lormée, H., Fox, J.W., Ducamp, J.J. & Boutin, J.M. (2013) Migration routes and staging areas of Trans-Saharan Turtle Doves appraised from light-level geolocators. PLoS ONE, 8(3), e59396.
Evens, R., Beenaerts, N., Neyens, T., Witters, N., Smeets, K. & Artois T. (2018) Proximity of breeding and foraging areas affects foraging effort of a crepuscular, insectivorous bird. Scientific Reports, 8. 10.1038/s41598-018-21321-0.
Fisher, I., Ashpole, J., Scallan, D., Proud, T. & Carboneras, C. (compilers) (2018) International Single Species Action Plan for the conservation of the European Turtle-dove Streptopelia turtur (2018 to 2028). European Commission Technical Report xxx-2018.
Gillings, S. & Fuller, R.J. (1998) Changes in bird populations on sample lowland English farms in relation to loss of hedgerows and other noncrop habitats. Oecologia, 116, 120–127.
Gutiérrez-Galán, A. & Alonso, C. (2016) European Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur diet composition in Southern Spain: the role of wild seeds in Mediterranean forest areas, Bird Study, 63(4), 490–499.
Gutierrez-Galan, A., Alonso, L.S. & González, A.C. (2018) Foraging habitat requirements of European Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur in a Mediterranean forest landscape. Acta Ornithologica, 53, 143–154.
Hanane, S. (2003) Suivi de la reproduction de la tourterelle des bois (Streptopelia turtur) dans la région de Taroudant au cours de l’année 2002. Rapport, Département des Eaux et Forêts et à la Lutte Contre la Désertification (Div. Rec. Exp. For). 19pp.
Hanane, S. (2012) Do age and type of plantings affect turtle dove Streptopelia turtur nest placement in olive agro-ecosystems? Ethology,
Ecology and Evolution, 24, 284–293.
Hanane, S. (2014) Plasticity in nest placement of the turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur): experimental evidence from Moroccan agroecosystems. Avian Biology Research, 7(2), 1–9.
Hanane, S. (2015) Nest-niche differentiation in two sympatric Streptopelia species from a North African agricultural area: the role of human presence. Ecological Research, 30, 573–580.
Hanane, S. (2016a) Effects of orchard type and breeding period on turtle dove nest density in irrigated agroecosystems. Bird Study, 63, 141–145.
Hanane, S. (2016b) Effects of location, orchard type, laying period and nest position on the reproductive performance of turtle doves (Streptopelia turtur) on intensively cultivated farmland. Avian Research, 7, 4.
Hanane, S. (2017) The European turtle-dove Streptopelia turtur in Northwest Africa: a review of current knowledge and priorities for future research. Ardeola, 64(2), 273–287.
Hanane, S. (2018) Multi-scale turtle dove nest habitat selection in a Mediterranean agroforestry landscape: implications for the conservation of a vulnerable species. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 64 (4), 1-9.
Hanane, S. & Baamal, L. (2011) Are Moroccan fruit orchards suitable breeding habitats for turtle doves Streptopelia turtur? Bird Study, 58, 57–67.
Hanane, S. & Yassin, M. (2017) Nest-niche differentiation in two sympatric columbid species from a Mediterranean Tetraclinis woodland: considerations for forest management. Acta Oecologica, 78, 47–52.
Hanane, S., Cherkaoui, I., Magri, N. & Yassin, M. (2018) Bird species richness in artificial plantations and natural forests in a North African agroforestry system: assessment and implications. Agroforestry Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0281-z.
Haut Commissariat aux Eaux et Forêts et à la Lutte Contre la Désertification (HCEFLCD) (2013) Rapport annuel de la chasse saison 2012/2013. 38 pp
Hinsley, S.A., Bellamy, P.E., Newton, I., Sparks, T.H. (1995) Habitat and landscape factors influencing the presence of individual breeding bird species in woodland fragments. Journal Avian Biology, 26, 94–104.
Hinsley, S.A. & Bellamy, P.E. (2000) The influence of hedge structure, management and landscape context on the value of hedgerows to birds: a review. Journal of Wildlife Management, 60, 33–49.
Kafi, F., Hanane, S., Bensouilah, T., Zeraoula, A., Brahmia, H. & Houhamdi, M. (2015) Les facteurs déterminants le succès de reproduction de la Tourterelle des bois (Streptopelia turtur) dans un milieu agricole Nord-Africain. Rev d’Écologie (Terre Vie) 70, 271–279.
Lormée, H., Boutin, JM., Pinaud, D., Bidault, H. & Eraud, C. (2016) Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur migration routes and wintering areas revealed using satellite telemetry. Bird Study, 63(3), 425–429.
Marx, M., Korner-Nievergelt, F. & Quillfeldt, P. (2016) Analysis of Ring Recoveries of European Turtle Doves Streptopelia turtur — Flyways, Migration Timing and Origin Areas of Hunted Birds. Acta Ornithologica, 51(1), 55–70.
Mezquida, ET. & Marone, L. (2002) Microhabitat structure and avian nest predation risk in an open Argentinean woodland: an experimental study. Acta Oecologica, 23, 313–320.
Niemc, A., Remisiewicz, M., Avni, J., Underhill L.G. (2018), Sexual dimorphism in adult Little Stints (Calidris minuta) revealed by DNA sexing and discriminant analysis. PeerJ 6:e5367; DOI 10.7717/peerj.5367.
Pearse, A.T., Cavitt, J.E. & Cully, J.F. (2004) Effects of food supplementation on female nest attentiveness and incubation mate feeding in two sympatric wren species. Wilson Bulletin, 116(1), 23–30.
Peiro, V. (1990) Aspectos de la reproduccion de la Tortola comun (Streptopelia turtur) en Madrid. Mediterranean Series Biology, 12, 89–96.
Penloup, A., Martin, J.L., Gory, G., Brunstein, D., Bretagnolle, V. & Gory, G. (1997) Distribution and Breeding Success of Pallid Swifts, Apus pallidus, on Mediterranean Islands: Nest Predation by the Roof Rat, Rattus rattus, and Nest Site Quality. Oikos, 80, 78. 10.2307/3546518.
Quantum GIS Development Team (2017) QGIS Geographic Information System, Version 2.18.14-Las Palmas. Open Source Geospatial Foundation, Chicago.
Quinn, G.P. & Keough, M.J. (2002) Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. R Development Core Team (2013) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. ISBN 3-900051-07-0, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna. http://www.R-project.org.
Reino, L., Beja, P., Osborne, P.E., Morgado, R., Fabiao, A. & Rotenberry, J.T. (2009) Distance to edges, edge contrast and landscape fragmentation: interactions affecting farmland birds around forest plantations. Biological Conservation, 142(4), 824–838.
Rice, W.R. (1989) Analyzing tables of statistical tests. Evolution 43, 223e225. Rocha, G. & Quillfeldt, P. (2015) Effect of supplementary food on age ratios of European turtle doves (Streptopelia turtur L.). Animal Biodiversity and Conservation, 38, 11–21.
Rocha, G. & Hidalgo, S. (2002) La tórtola común Streptopelia turtur. Análisis de los factores que afectan a su status. Cáceres. Universidad de Extremadura, Servicio de Publicaciones.
Rogers, P.C. (1996) Disturbance ecology and forest management: a review of the literature. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, p 16.
Sweeney, O., Wilson, M., Irwin, S., Kelly, T. & O’Halloran, J. (2010) Are bird density, species richness and community structure similar between native woodlands and non-native plantations in an area with a generalist bird fauna? Biodiversity Conservation, 19, 2329–2342.
Tabachnick, B.G. & Fidell, L.S. (2001) Using Multivariate Statistics. 4th Edition, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Thévenot, M., Vernon, R. & Bergier, P. (2003) The birds of Morocco. Tring: British Ornithologists’ Union/British Ornithologists’ Club.
Underwood, A.J. (1996) Experiments in Ecology. Their Logical Design and Interpretation Using Analysis of Variance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Vernon, R., Thévenot, M., Bergier, P. & Rousseau, E. (2005) Argan woodland, an important bird habitat in Morocco. ABC Bulletin, 12, 134–146.
Wiehn, J. & Korpimäki, E. (1997) Food Limitation on Brood Size: Experimental Evidence in the Eurasian Kestrel. Ecology, 78. 10.2307/2265943.
Yahiaoui, K., Arab, K., Belhamra, M., Browne, S.J., Boutin, J.M. & Moali, A. (2014) Habitat occupancy by European turtle dove (Strepto 22 pelia turtur) in the Isser Valley. Algeria. Revue d’Ecologie (Terre Vie), 69(3–4), 234–246.
Yanes, M. & Oñate, J.J. (1996) Does nest predation affect nest-site selection in larks. Rev. D’Ecologie (Terre Vie) 51, 259–267.
Yanes, M., Herranz, J. & Suarez, F. (1996) Nest microhabitat selection in larks from a European Semiarid shrub steppe. The role of sunlight and predation. Journal of Arid Environments, 32, 469–478.
Zar, J.H. (1984) Biostatistical Analysis. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, p. 717.
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How to Cite
Hanane, S. (2019). Discriminating between nesting and non-nesting habitat in a vulnerable bird species: Implications for behavioural ecology. European Journal of Ecology, 5(1), 15-22. https://doi.org/10.2478/eje-2019-0003
