Population characteristics and habitat suitability of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758) in the Khao Yai National Park, Thailand
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.2478/eje-2019-0012Keywords:
Line Transect method, Wild elephant, population characteristicsAbstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the population and habitat of wild elephants in the Khao Yai National Park, to provide elephant population densities using the line transect method. Habitat suitability was also assessed based on the data obtained from the location of the species during monthly ranger patrol across the park area, with the rate of dung decay used for population calculation. The population structure and age class were studied by direct observation to estimate the population trend. On the basis of 116 systematic transect lines that were 2 km in length and separated by 500-m intervals, a total of 1,209 elephant dung piles were found in more than 213.20 km. The analysis of the combined data showed that the dung density was 531.49 dung piles/km 2, with a decay rate of 0.0039 dung piles/day based on 56 dung piles checked every 7 days. The annual data showed that the population density was 0.15 individuals/km 2. The population structure comprising calf:juvenile:subadult:adult was 1: 1.09:1.14:2.10; the sex ratio of adult male to adult female elephants was 1:1.10; and the ratio of reproductive ability among adult females, juveniles, and calves was 1.00:0.99:0.90. The combined data also showed that the main environmental factor affecting the presence of the animals was salt lick sites. The pooled data analysis found that the habitat most suitable for the elephants covered an area of 220.59 km 2. The habitat suitability, based on the dry season appearance data, covered an area of 258.64 km 2, whereas during the wet season, it covered an area of 517.45 km 2. As the most suitable habitat for elephants appears around the park boundary, habitat improvements for wild elephants should address the central areas of the national park. A greater emphasis should be placed on creating salt licks, being far from human activity sites.References
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Density and Estimation of the Bornean Elephants (Elephas maximus
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10 (2), 92-102.
Arivazhagan, C. (2005) Population dynamics of Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) in Southern India. Ph.D Thesis, Bharathidasan University,
Trichy, India.
Arivazhagan, C. & Sukumar, R. (2008) Constructing age structure of
Asian elephant populations: a comparison of two field methods
of age estimation. Gajah, 29, 11-16.
Barnes, J.I. (1996) Changes in the economic use value of elephant in
Botswana: the effect of international trade prohibition. Ecological
Economics, 18 (3), 215-230.
Barnes, R.F.W. (2001) How reliable are dung counts for estimating elephant
numbers? African Journal of Ecology, 39, 1–9.
Barnes, R.F.W. & Barnes, K.L. (1992) Estimating decay rates of elephant
dung piles in forest. African Journal of Ecology, 30, 316–321.
Barnes, R.F.W. & Jensen, K.L. (1987) How to count elephants in forests.
IUCN African Elephants and Rhino Specialist Group: Technical
Bulletin, 1, 12-87.
Burnham, Κ.Ρ, Anderson, D. R., Laake J.L., et al. (1980) Estimation of
density from line transect sampling of biological populations.
Wildlife Monograph, 72, 1-202.
Chaiyarat, R., Youngpoy. N., Prempree, P., et al. (2015) Wild Asian elephant
Elephas maximus population in Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary,
Thailand. Endangered Species Research, 29, 95-102.
Chokcharoen, R. & Sukmasuang, R. (2012) Ecology of Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus) in Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary, Bueng Kan
Province. Journal of Wildlife in Thailand, 19, 13 -22 (in Thai).
Choudhury, A., Choudhury, L., Desai, A.A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S.,
Johnsingh, A.J.T., Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M.,
Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A.,
Wikramanayake, E., et al. (2008) Elephas maximus. The IUCN
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Collins, N.J. (2018) Sumatran elephant Elephas maximus sumatranus
density and habitat use in relation to forest characteristics in the
Leuser Ecosystem, North Sumatra. M.Sc. Thesis, Bournemouth
University, UK.
Dawson, S. (1990) A model to estimate the density of Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus) in forest habitats. M.Sc. thesis, University of
Oxford, UK.
Dawson, S. & Dekker, A.J.F.M., (1992) Counting Asian elephants in forests.
FAO, Bangkok.
De, R.C. & Spillet, J.J. (1966) A study of the Chital or spotted deer in
Corbett National Park, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society, 63, 576–598.
Dekker, A.J.F.M., Dawson, S. & Desai, A.A. (1991) An indirect method for
counting Asian elephants in forests. In: U. Ramakrishnan, Santosh,
J.A. & Sukumar, R. (Eds.) Censusing Elephant in Forests,
Proceedings of an International Workshop (2-10 January 1992,
Bangalore, India), Asian Elephant Conservation Center, Bangalore,
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and protected area management. WWF/IUCN, Royal
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from Dung Pile Density: Theoretical Concepts. In: S. Hedges
(Ed.) Monitoring Elephant Populations and Assessing: Threats
a manual for researchers, managers and conservationists (pp.
61-111). Universities Press (India) Private Limited.
Faculty of Forestry (2013) Elephant Conservation and management
plan. Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University Press. Bangkok.
(in Thai)
FAO (2009) Human-wildlife conflict in Africa conflict in Africa causes,
consequences Causes, consequences and management strategies
and management strategies. Retrieved from http: //www.
fao.org/3/i1048e/i1048e00.pdf.
Fawcett, T. (2006) An introduction to ROC analysis. Pattern Recognition
Letters, 27, 861-874.
Foley, C.A.H., Papageorge, S., Wasser, S. K., et al. (2001) Non-invasive
measures and reproductive measures of social and ecological
pressures in free ranging African elephants. Conservation Biology,
14, 1134-1142.
Fowler, M.E. & Mikota, S.K. (2006) Biology, medicine and surgery of
elephants. Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Katugaha, H.I.E., deSilva, M., Santiapillai, C., et al. (1999) A long term
study on the dynamics of the elephant (Elephas maximus) in
Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Biological Conservation, 89,
51-59.
Kitamura, S., Yumoto, T., Poonswad, P., Wohandee, P., et al. (2007) Frugivory
and seed dispersal by Asian elephants, Elephas maximus,
in a moist evergreen forest of Thailand. Journal of Tropical Ecology,
23, 373–376.
Kumara, H.N., Rathnakumar, S., Kumar, M.A., Singh, M., et al. (2012)
Estimating Asian elephant, Elephas maximus, density through
distance sampling in the tropical forests of Biligiri Rangaswamy
Temple Tiger Reserve, India. Tropical Conservation Science, 5
(2), 163-172.
Lueders, I., Niemuller, C., Rich, P., Gray, C., Hermes, R., Goeritz, F., et al.
(2012) Gestating for 22 months: luteal development and pregnancy
maintenance in elephants. Proceedings of the Royal Society
B: Biological Sciences, 279, 3687–3696.
Lynam, A.J., Round, P.D., Brockelman, W.Y., et al. (2006) Status of birds
and large mammals in Thailand’s Dong Phayayen - Khao Yai Forest
Complex. Wildlife Conservation Society and Biodiversity Research
and Training (BRT) Programme, Bangkok.
Madhusudan, M.D. (2003) Living amidst large wildlife: livestock and
crop depredation by large mammals in the interior villages of
Bhadra Tiger Reserve, South India. Journal of Environmental
Management, 31 (4), 466-475.
Menkham, K., Sukmasuang, R., Pla-Ard, M., Charaspet, K., Panganta, T.,
Trisurat, Y., Bhumpakphan, N., et al. (2019) Population and habitat
use of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and five ungulate
species in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Chachoengsao
Province, Thailand. Biodiversitas, 20, 2213-2221.
National Parks Research and Innovation Development Center (NPRD)
(2017) Attitudes and opinions of Thai tourists towards the conservation
of crocodiles in Khao Yai National Park. National Parks
Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Nakorn Ratchasima
Province. (in Thai).
Nchanji, A.C. & Plumptre, A.J. (2001) Seasonality in elephant dung decay
and implications for censusing and population monitoring in
south-western Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology, 39, 24–32
Phillips, S.J. (2008) A Brief Tutorial on Maxent. Retrieved from http://
www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/maxent/tutorial.doc.
Phillips, S.J. & Dudík, M. (2008) Modeling of species distributions with
Maxent: new extensions and a comprehensive evaluation. Ecography,
31(2), 161-175.
Ramakrishnan, U., Santosh, J.A., Sukumar, R., et al. (1991) Censusing elephants
in forests. Asian Elephant Conservation Centre of IUCN/
SSG Asian Elephant Specialist Group, Bangalore, India.
Seoraj-Pillai, N. & Pillay, N. (2017) A meta-analysis of human-wildlife
conflict: South African and global perspectives. Sustainability, 9
(34), 1-21. Retrieved from DOI: 10.3390/su9010034
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Storer, P.J. (1981) Elephant Population in Thailand. Natural History Bulletin
of Siam Society, 29, 1-30.
Sukmasuang, R. (2009) Population density of Asian elephants in Huai
Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary. Thai Journal of Forestry, 28(1),
40 – 50.
Sukumar, R. (1989) The Asian elephant: ecology and management.
Cambridge University, New York.
Sukumar, R. (2006) A brief review of the status, distribution and biology
of wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). International Zoo
Yearbook, 40, 1–8.
Sukumar, R., Ramakrishnan, U., Santosh, J.A., et al. (1998) Impact of
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a model of demography and tusk harvest. Animal Conservation,
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Hedley, S.L., Bishop, J.R.B., Marques, T.A., Burnham, K.P., et
al. (2010) Distance software: design and analysis of distance
sampling surveys for estimating population size. Journal of
Applied Ecology, 47, 5-14. Retrieved from DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-
2664.2009.01737.x
Treves, A. & Naughton-Treves, L. 1999. Risk and opportunity for humans
coexisting with large carnivores. Journal of Human Ecology,
36, 275-282.
Trisurat, Y., Eiumnoh, A., Tharnchai, P., Phongpanit, K., et al. (1996) A
geographical study of wildlife abundances in Khao Yai National
Park, Thailand. Report submitted toThailand Research Fund. School of Environment, Resources and Development,
Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok
UNESCO (2019) Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex. Retrieved
from https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/590/.
Van de Water, A. & Matteson, K. (2018) Human-elephant conflict in
western Thailand: Socio-economic drivers and potential mitigation
strategies. PLoS ONE, 13(6), e0194736. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194736.
Vanleeuwe, H. & Probert., J. (2014) Decay rate of elephant dung in
Conkouati-Douli National Park, Republic of Congo. Pachyderm,
55(55), 89-91.
Varman, Κ.S. & Sukumar, R. (1995) The line transect method for estimating
densities of large mammals in a tropical deciduous forest:
An evaluation of models and field experiments. Journal of
Biosciences, 20(2), 273-287.
Varma, S., Baskaran, N. & Sukumar, R. (2012) Field key for elephant population
estimation and age and sex classification. Asian Nature
Conservation Foundation, Innovation Centre, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, India.
Wanghongsa, S. & Boonkird, K. (2004) Estimating elephant populations
in dry evergreen forest of Thailand. Retrieved from http://www.
theeasternforest.org/pages/2547/Estimating.pdf.
Williams, C., Johnsingh, A. J. T., Krausman, P. R., et al. (2007) Population
estimation and demography of the Rajaji National Park elephants,
North-West India. Journal of Bombay Natural History
Society, 104, 145-152.
White, L.J.T. (1995) Factors affecting the duration of elephant dung piles
in rain forest in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology,
33, 142–15.
Zhang, Li & Wang, N. (2003) An initial study on habitat conservation of
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), with a focus on human elephant
conflict in Simao, China. Biological Conservation, 112(3),
453-459.
Density and Estimation of the Bornean Elephants (Elephas maximus
borneensis) in Sabah. OnLine Journal of Biological Sciences,
10 (2), 92-102.
Arivazhagan, C. (2005) Population dynamics of Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) in Southern India. Ph.D Thesis, Bharathidasan University,
Trichy, India.
Arivazhagan, C. & Sukumar, R. (2008) Constructing age structure of
Asian elephant populations: a comparison of two field methods
of age estimation. Gajah, 29, 11-16.
Barnes, J.I. (1996) Changes in the economic use value of elephant in
Botswana: the effect of international trade prohibition. Ecological
Economics, 18 (3), 215-230.
Barnes, R.F.W. (2001) How reliable are dung counts for estimating elephant
numbers? African Journal of Ecology, 39, 1–9.
Barnes, R.F.W. & Barnes, K.L. (1992) Estimating decay rates of elephant
dung piles in forest. African Journal of Ecology, 30, 316–321.
Barnes, R.F.W. & Jensen, K.L. (1987) How to count elephants in forests.
IUCN African Elephants and Rhino Specialist Group: Technical
Bulletin, 1, 12-87.
Burnham, Κ.Ρ, Anderson, D. R., Laake J.L., et al. (1980) Estimation of
density from line transect sampling of biological populations.
Wildlife Monograph, 72, 1-202.
Chaiyarat, R., Youngpoy. N., Prempree, P., et al. (2015) Wild Asian elephant
Elephas maximus population in Salakpra Wildlife Sanctuary,
Thailand. Endangered Species Research, 29, 95-102.
Chokcharoen, R. & Sukmasuang, R. (2012) Ecology of Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus) in Phu Wua Wildlife Sanctuary, Bueng Kan
Province. Journal of Wildlife in Thailand, 19, 13 -22 (in Thai).
Choudhury, A., Choudhury, L., Desai, A.A., Duckworth, J.W., Easa, P.S.,
Johnsingh, A.J.T., Fernando, P., Hedges, S., Gunawardena, M.,
Kurt, F., Karanth, U., Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A.,
Wikramanayake, E., et al. (2008) Elephas maximus. The IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T7140A12828813. Retrieved
from http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.
T7140A12828813.en.
Collins, N.J. (2018) Sumatran elephant Elephas maximus sumatranus
density and habitat use in relation to forest characteristics in the
Leuser Ecosystem, North Sumatra. M.Sc. Thesis, Bournemouth
University, UK.
Dawson, S. (1990) A model to estimate the density of Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus) in forest habitats. M.Sc. thesis, University of
Oxford, UK.
Dawson, S. & Dekker, A.J.F.M., (1992) Counting Asian elephants in forests.
FAO, Bangkok.
De, R.C. & Spillet, J.J. (1966) A study of the Chital or spotted deer in
Corbett National Park, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society, 63, 576–598.
Dekker, A.J.F.M., Dawson, S. & Desai, A.A. (1991) An indirect method for
counting Asian elephants in forests. In: U. Ramakrishnan, Santosh,
J.A. & Sukumar, R. (Eds.) Censusing Elephant in Forests,
Proceedings of an International Workshop (2-10 January 1992,
Bangalore, India), Asian Elephant Conservation Center, Bangalore,
India, 54-64.
Dobias, R. (1985) Final report: WWF/IUCN Project 3001: elephant conservation
and protected area management. WWF/IUCN, Royal
Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand.
Hedges, S. (2012) Estimating Elephant Population Density and Abundance
from Dung Pile Density: Theoretical Concepts. In: S. Hedges
(Ed.) Monitoring Elephant Populations and Assessing: Threats
a manual for researchers, managers and conservationists (pp.
61-111). Universities Press (India) Private Limited.
Faculty of Forestry (2013) Elephant Conservation and management
plan. Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University Press. Bangkok.
(in Thai)
FAO (2009) Human-wildlife conflict in Africa conflict in Africa causes,
consequences Causes, consequences and management strategies
and management strategies. Retrieved from http: //www.
fao.org/3/i1048e/i1048e00.pdf.
Fawcett, T. (2006) An introduction to ROC analysis. Pattern Recognition
Letters, 27, 861-874.
Foley, C.A.H., Papageorge, S., Wasser, S. K., et al. (2001) Non-invasive
measures and reproductive measures of social and ecological
pressures in free ranging African elephants. Conservation Biology,
14, 1134-1142.
Fowler, M.E. & Mikota, S.K. (2006) Biology, medicine and surgery of
elephants. Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Katugaha, H.I.E., deSilva, M., Santiapillai, C., et al. (1999) A long term
study on the dynamics of the elephant (Elephas maximus) in
Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Biological Conservation, 89,
51-59.
Kitamura, S., Yumoto, T., Poonswad, P., Wohandee, P., et al. (2007) Frugivory
and seed dispersal by Asian elephants, Elephas maximus,
in a moist evergreen forest of Thailand. Journal of Tropical Ecology,
23, 373–376.
Kumara, H.N., Rathnakumar, S., Kumar, M.A., Singh, M., et al. (2012)
Estimating Asian elephant, Elephas maximus, density through
distance sampling in the tropical forests of Biligiri Rangaswamy
Temple Tiger Reserve, India. Tropical Conservation Science, 5
(2), 163-172.
Lueders, I., Niemuller, C., Rich, P., Gray, C., Hermes, R., Goeritz, F., et al.
(2012) Gestating for 22 months: luteal development and pregnancy
maintenance in elephants. Proceedings of the Royal Society
B: Biological Sciences, 279, 3687–3696.
Lynam, A.J., Round, P.D., Brockelman, W.Y., et al. (2006) Status of birds
and large mammals in Thailand’s Dong Phayayen - Khao Yai Forest
Complex. Wildlife Conservation Society and Biodiversity Research
and Training (BRT) Programme, Bangkok.
Madhusudan, M.D. (2003) Living amidst large wildlife: livestock and
crop depredation by large mammals in the interior villages of
Bhadra Tiger Reserve, South India. Journal of Environmental
Management, 31 (4), 466-475.
Menkham, K., Sukmasuang, R., Pla-Ard, M., Charaspet, K., Panganta, T.,
Trisurat, Y., Bhumpakphan, N., et al. (2019) Population and habitat
use of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and five ungulate
species in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Chachoengsao
Province, Thailand. Biodiversitas, 20, 2213-2221.
National Parks Research and Innovation Development Center (NPRD)
(2017) Attitudes and opinions of Thai tourists towards the conservation
of crocodiles in Khao Yai National Park. National Parks
Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Nakorn Ratchasima
Province. (in Thai).
Nchanji, A.C. & Plumptre, A.J. (2001) Seasonality in elephant dung decay
and implications for censusing and population monitoring in
south-western Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology, 39, 24–32
Phillips, S.J. (2008) A Brief Tutorial on Maxent. Retrieved from http://
www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/maxent/tutorial.doc.
Phillips, S.J. & Dudík, M. (2008) Modeling of species distributions with
Maxent: new extensions and a comprehensive evaluation. Ecography,
31(2), 161-175.
Ramakrishnan, U., Santosh, J.A., Sukumar, R., et al. (1991) Censusing elephants
in forests. Asian Elephant Conservation Centre of IUCN/
SSG Asian Elephant Specialist Group, Bangalore, India.
Seoraj-Pillai, N. & Pillay, N. (2017) A meta-analysis of human-wildlife
conflict: South African and global perspectives. Sustainability, 9
(34), 1-21. Retrieved from DOI: 10.3390/su9010034
Srikosamatara, S. & Hansel, T. (1996) Mammals of Khao Yai National
Park. Green World Foundation, Bangkok.
Storer, P.J. (1981) Elephant Population in Thailand. Natural History Bulletin
of Siam Society, 29, 1-30.
Sukmasuang, R. (2009) Population density of Asian elephants in Huai
Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary. Thai Journal of Forestry, 28(1),
40 – 50.
Sukumar, R. (1989) The Asian elephant: ecology and management.
Cambridge University, New York.
Sukumar, R. (2006) A brief review of the status, distribution and biology
of wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). International Zoo
Yearbook, 40, 1–8.
Sukumar, R., Ramakrishnan, U., Santosh, J.A., et al. (1998) Impact of
poaching on Asian elephant population in Periyar, southern India:
a model of demography and tusk harvest. Animal Conservation,
1, 281 – 291.
Thai National Park (2019) Wildlife in Khao Yai. Retrieved from https://
www.thainationalparks.com/khao-yai-national-park/wildlife.
Thomas, L., Buckland, S.T., Rexstad, E.A., Laake, J.L., Strindberg, S.,
Hedley, S.L., Bishop, J.R.B., Marques, T.A., Burnham, K.P., et
al. (2010) Distance software: design and analysis of distance
sampling surveys for estimating population size. Journal of
Applied Ecology, 47, 5-14. Retrieved from DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-
2664.2009.01737.x
Treves, A. & Naughton-Treves, L. 1999. Risk and opportunity for humans
coexisting with large carnivores. Journal of Human Ecology,
36, 275-282.
Trisurat, Y., Eiumnoh, A., Tharnchai, P., Phongpanit, K., et al. (1996) A
geographical study of wildlife abundances in Khao Yai National
Park, Thailand. Report submitted toThailand Research Fund. School of Environment, Resources and Development,
Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok
UNESCO (2019) Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Complex. Retrieved
from https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/590/.
Van de Water, A. & Matteson, K. (2018) Human-elephant conflict in
western Thailand: Socio-economic drivers and potential mitigation
strategies. PLoS ONE, 13(6), e0194736. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194736.
Vanleeuwe, H. & Probert., J. (2014) Decay rate of elephant dung in
Conkouati-Douli National Park, Republic of Congo. Pachyderm,
55(55), 89-91.
Varman, Κ.S. & Sukumar, R. (1995) The line transect method for estimating
densities of large mammals in a tropical deciduous forest:
An evaluation of models and field experiments. Journal of
Biosciences, 20(2), 273-287.
Varma, S., Baskaran, N. & Sukumar, R. (2012) Field key for elephant population
estimation and age and sex classification. Asian Nature
Conservation Foundation, Innovation Centre, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, India.
Wanghongsa, S. & Boonkird, K. (2004) Estimating elephant populations
in dry evergreen forest of Thailand. Retrieved from http://www.
theeasternforest.org/pages/2547/Estimating.pdf.
Williams, C., Johnsingh, A. J. T., Krausman, P. R., et al. (2007) Population
estimation and demography of the Rajaji National Park elephants,
North-West India. Journal of Bombay Natural History
Society, 104, 145-152.
White, L.J.T. (1995) Factors affecting the duration of elephant dung piles
in rain forest in the Lope Reserve, Gabon. African Journal of Ecology,
33, 142–15.
Zhang, Li & Wang, N. (2003) An initial study on habitat conservation of
Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), with a focus on human elephant
conflict in Simao, China. Biological Conservation, 112(3),
453-459.
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How to Cite
Pla-ard, M., Sukmasuang, R., & Srinopawan, K. . (2019). Population characteristics and habitat suitability of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758) in the Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. European Journal of Ecology, 5(2), 62-71. https://doi.org/10.2478/eje-2019-0012
