Individual-level explanations of corruption within an intercollegiate context
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17161/jis.v12i1.11560Keywords:
causes, sport corruption, micro-level accounts, rule violations, interdisciplinary corruption frameworkAbstract
Understanding why individuals engage in sport corruption is an emerging topic of research. Micro-level accounts of corruption have generally used a single disciplinary approach toward understanding why actors commit corruption (e.g., doping and match-fixing) in specific sports. The purpose of this study was to first examine individual-level explanations of corruption in the context of intercollegiate athletics; and, second, to generate an interdisciplinary framework. A multi-case analysis was conducted of 20 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) major infractions (corruption) reports that occurred between 2005 and 2015. The findings showed that actors’ explanations were based on psychological factors—motivations (social relationship and self-interest) and personal norms, professional factors (abuse of power and failure of responsibilities), and justification factors (rationalizing strategies). This research builds on existing scholarship by generating an interdisciplinary framework of micro-level accounts of sport corruption in intercollegiate athletics.
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References
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Anand, V., Ashforth, B. E., & Joshi, M. (2004). Business as usual: The acceptance and perpetuation of corruption in organizations. The Academy of Management Executive, 18, 39-53.
Andvig, J.C., & Fjeldstad, O.H. (2001). Corruption a review of contemporary research: Report. Oslo, Norway: Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institut.
Bag, P. K., & Saha, B. (2011). Match-fixing under competitive odds. Games and Economic Behavior, 73, 318-344.
Balsdon, E., Fong, L., & Thayer, M. A. (2007). Corruption in college basketball? Evidence of tanking in postseason conference tournaments. Journal of Sports Economics, 8, 19-38.
Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 193-209.
Bandura, A. (2002). Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Moral Education, 31, 101-119.
Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., & Zsolnai, L. (2000). Corporate transgressions through moral disengagement. Journal of Human Values, 6, 57-64.
Bell, P., Dean, G., Vakhitova, Z., & Ranley, J. (2018). Research methods. In L. A. Kihl (Ed.) Corruption in sport: Causes, consequences and reform. (pp. 173-199). London, UK: Routledge.
Bell, P., Ten Have, C., & Lauchs, M. (2016). A case study analysis of a sophisticated sports doping network: Lance Armstrong and the USPS Team. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 46, 57-68.
Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.
Boardley, I. D., & Kavussanu, M. (2011). Moral disengagement in sport. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4(2), 93-108.
Boeri, T., & Severgnini, B. (2011). Match rigging and the career concerns of referees. Labour Economics, 18, 349-359.
Brass, D. J., Butterfield, K. D., & Skaggs, B. C. (1998). Relationships and unethical behavior: a social network perspective. Academy of Management Review, 23, 14-31.
Bricknell, S. (2015). Corruption in Australian sport. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 490, 1-11.
Caiden, G.E., Dwivedi, O.P., and Jabbra, J. (2001). Introduction. In G. E. Caiden, O. P. Dwivedi and J. Jabbra, J. (eds). Where corruption lives. (pp. 1-14). Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press.
Carpenter, K. (2012). Match-fixing—The biggest threat to sport in the 21st Century? Int Sports Law Rev, 2, 13-23.
Clark, R. S., & Batista, P. J. (2009). Whitepaper Summary: Do BCS national championships lead to recruiting violations? A trend analysis of NCAA division I (FBS) infractions. Journal of Sport Administration and Supervision, 1. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.6776111.0001.105
Collins, J. D., Uhlenbruck, K., & Rodriguez, P. (2009). Why firms engage in corruption: A top management perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 87, 89-108.
Coombs, J. R. (1998). Educational ethics: Are we on the right track? Educational Theory, 48(4), 555-569.
Cullen, F. T., Latessa, E. J., & Jonson, C. L. (2012). Assessing the extent and sources of NCAA rule infractions. Criminology & Public Policy, 11, 667-706.
Davis, T. (1999). Sports law in the 21st century: Intercollegiate athletics in the next millennium, a framework for evaluating reform proposals. Marquette Sports Law Journal, 9, 1-20.
De Graff, G. (2009). Causes of corruption: Towards a contextual theory of corruption. Public Administration Quarterly, 31, 39- 86
Ehrnborg, C., & Rosén, T. (2009). The psychology behind doping in sport. Growth Hormone & IGF Research, 19, 285-287.
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management
Review, 14, 532–550.
Engelberg, T., Moston, S., & Skinner, J. (2015). The final frontier of anti-doping: A study of athletes who have committed doping violations. Sport Management Review, 18, 268-279.
Fizel, J., & Brown, C. A. (2014). Assessing the determinants of NCAA football violations. Atlantic Economic Journal, 42, 277-290.
Feustel, E. D., & Rodenberg, R. M. (2015). Sports (betting) integrity: Detecting match-fixing in soccer. Gaming Law Review and Economics, 19, 689-694.
Forrest, D., McHale, I., & McAuley, K. (2008). "Say It Ain't So": Betting-related malpractice in sport. International Journal of Sport Finance, 3, 156-166.
Frost, J., & Tischer, S. (2014). Unmasking collective corruption: The dynamics of corrupt routines. European Management Review, 11, 191-207.
Gorse, S., & Chadwick, S. (2010). Conceptualising corruption in sport: Implications for sponsorship programmes. The European Business Review, 4, 40-45. Retrieved from http://www.europeanbusinessreview.com/?p=1973
Gorsira, M., Denkers, A., & Huisman, W. (2016). Both sides of the coin: Motives for corruption among public officials and business employees. Journal of Business Ethics, 1-16. doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3219-2
Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1360-1380.
Hill, D. (2009a). How gambling corruptors fix football matches. European Sport Management Quarterly, 9, 411-432.
Hill, D. (2009b). To fix or not to fix? How corruptors decide to fix football matches. Global Crime, 10, 157-177.
Hill, D. (2010). A critical mass of corruption: Why some football leagues have more match-fixing than others. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 11, 38-52.
Hill, D. (2013). The insider’s guide to match-fixing in football. Toronto, ON: Anne McDermid & Associates Ltd.
Hill, D. (2015). Jumping into fixing. Trends in Organized Crime, 18, 212-228.
Humphreys, B. R. (2012). NCAA rule infractions. Criminology & Public Policy, 11, 707-712.
INTERPOL. (2017). Match-fixing and illegal gambling. Retrieved from https://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Crimes-in-sport/Match-fixing-and-illegal-gambling
Jancsics, D. (2014). Interdisciplinary perspectives on corruption. Sociology Compass, 8, 358-372.
KEA. (2012). Match-fixing in sport: A mapping of the criminal law provisions in EU 27. KEA European Affairs, Brussels. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/sport/ library/studies/study-sports-fraud-final-version_en.pdf.
Kihl, L. A., Ndiaye, M., & Fink, J. (2018). Corruption’s impact on organizational outcomes. Social Responsibility Journal, 14(1), 40-60.
Kihl, L. A., & Richardson, T. (2009). “Fixing the mess”: A grounded theory of a men’s basketball coaching staff’s suffering as a result of academic corruption. Journal of Sport Management, 23, 278-304.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Kirby, K., Moran, A., & Guerin, S. (2011). A qualitative analysis of the experiences of elite athletes who have admitted to doping for performance enhancement. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 3, 205-224.
Kish-Gephart, J. J., Harrison, D. A., and Treviño, L. K. (2010). Bad apples, bad cases, and bad barrels: meta-analytic evidence about sources of unethical decisions at work. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 95, 1-31.
Langseth, P. (2016). Measuring corruption. In C. Sampford, A Shacklock, C. Connors, & F. Galtung (eds.), Measuring corruption. (pp. 23-60). London, UK: Routledge.
Lastra, R., Bell, P., & Bond, C. (in press). Sports betting and the integrity of Australian sport: Athletes' and non-athletes’ perceptions of betting-motivated corruption in sport. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, DOI 10.1016/j.ijlcj.2017.11.005
Lee, P. C. (2017). Understanding the match-fixing scandals of professional baseball in Taiwan: an exploratory study of a Confucianism-oriented society. European Sport Management Quarterly, 17, 45-66.
Lentillon‐Kaestner, V., & Carstairs, C. (2010). Doping use among young elite cyclists: A qualitative psychosociological approach. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20, 336-345.
Lopinao, D. (2016). The roots of corruption in US collegiate sport. In Transparency International’s Global corruption report: Sport. (pp. 275-285). London, UK: Routledge.
Maennig, W. (2005). Corruption in international sports and sport management: Forms, tendencies, extent and countermeasures. European Sport Management Quarterly, 5, 187-225.
Maennig, W. (2008). Corruption in international sports and how it may be combatted. International Association of Sports Economists & North American Association of Sports Economists, Working Paper Series, 08-13. Retrieved from http://college.holycross.edu/RePEc/spe/Maennig_Corruption.pdf
Manoli, A. E., & Antonopoulos, G. A. (2015). The only game in town? Football match-fixing in Greece. Trends in Organized Crime, 18, 196-211.
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing qualitative research. (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.
Masters, A. (2015). Corruption in sport: From the playing field to the field of policy. Policy and Society, 34, 111-123.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Miles, M. B., Huberman, M. A., & Saldana, J. (2014). Drawing and verifying conclusions. Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Moore, C., Detert, J. R., Trevino, K., Baker, V. L., & Mayer, D. M. (2012). Why employees do bad things: moral disengagement and unethical organizational behavior. Personnel Psychology, 65, 1-48.
National Collegiate Athletics Association. (2016). Legislative Services Database – LSDBi. National Collegiate Athletic Association. Retrieved from https://web1.ncaa.org/LSDBi/exec/miSearch
National collegiate Athletic Association. (2018). Committee on sportsmanship and ethical conduct. Retrieved from http://www.ncaa.org/governance/committees/committee-sportsmanship-and-ethical-conduct.
Nassif, N. (2014). Corruption in sport: the case of Lebanon. Middle East Law and Governance, 6, 123-140.
Nixon, H. L. (2014). The athletic trap: How college sports corrupted the academy. Baltimore, MD: JHU Press.
Numerato, D. (2015). Corruption and public secrecy: An ethnography of football match-fixing. Current Sociology, 64, 699-717.
Ones, D. S., Viswesvaran, C., & Schmidt, F. L. (1993). Comprehensive meta-analysis of integrity test validities: Findings and implications for personnel selection and theories of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 679-703.
Palmer, D. (2012). Normal organizational wrongdoing: A critical analysis of theories of misconduct in and by organizations. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Pappa, E., & Kennedy, E. (2013). It was my thought… he made it a reality: Normalization and responsibility in athletes’ accounts of performance-enhancing drug use. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 48, 277-294.
Paoli, L., & Donati, A. (2014). The sports doping market: Understanding supply and demand and the challenges of their control. New York: Springer.
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Pertiwi, K. (2018). Contextualizing corruption: A cross-disciplinary approach to studying corruption in organizations. Administrative Sciences, 8, 1-19.
Peurala, J. (2013). Match-manipulation in football-the challenges faced in Finland. The International Sports Law Journal, 13, 268-286.
Ridpath, B. D., Gurney, G., & Snyder, E. (2015). NCAA academic fraud cases and historical consistency: A comparative content analysis. J. Legal Aspects Sport, 25, 75-103.
Schwartz, S. H., & Howard, J. A. (1981). A normative decision-making model of altruism. A normative decision-making model of altruism. In J. P. Rushton and R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior (pp. 189-211). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Scientific Software Development. (2016). ATLAS ti: The knowledge workbench visual qualitative data analysis management model building (Version 7). Berlin, Germany: Scientific Software Development.
Spapens, T., & Olfers, M. (2015). Match-fixing: The current discussion in Europe and the case of the Netherlands. European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, 23, 333-358.
Steg, L., & Groot, J. (2010). Explaining prosocial intentions: Testing causal relationships in the norm activation model. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 725-743.
Stake, R. E. (1994). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds.) Handbook of qualitative research, (pp. 236-24). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Wainstein, K. L., Jay, A. J., & Kukowski, C. D. (October 16, 2014). Investigation of irregular classes in the Department of African and Afro-American Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. New York: Cadwalader
Yost, M. (2009). Varsity green: A behind the scenes look at culture and corruption in college athletics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Zaloznaya, M. (2014). The social psychology of corruption: Why it does not exist and why it should. Sociology Compass, 8, 187-202.
Zimbalist, A. (2018). Whither the NCAA: Reforming the system. Review of Industrial Organization, 52(2), 337-350.
Zyglidopoulos, S. C., Fleming, P. J., & Rothenberg, S. (2009). Rationalization, overcompensation and the escalation of corruption in organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 84 (Suppl.1), 65-73.
Anand, V., Ashforth, B. E., & Joshi, M. (2004). Business as usual: The acceptance and perpetuation of corruption in organizations. The Academy of Management Executive, 18, 39-53.
Andvig, J.C., & Fjeldstad, O.H. (2001). Corruption a review of contemporary research: Report. Oslo, Norway: Norsk Utenrikspolitisk Institut.
Bag, P. K., & Saha, B. (2011). Match-fixing under competitive odds. Games and Economic Behavior, 73, 318-344.
Balsdon, E., Fong, L., & Thayer, M. A. (2007). Corruption in college basketball? Evidence of tanking in postseason conference tournaments. Journal of Sports Economics, 8, 19-38.
Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3, 193-209.
Bandura, A. (2002). Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Moral Education, 31, 101-119.
Bandura, A., Caprara, G. V., & Zsolnai, L. (2000). Corporate transgressions through moral disengagement. Journal of Human Values, 6, 57-64.
Bell, P., Dean, G., Vakhitova, Z., & Ranley, J. (2018). Research methods. In L. A. Kihl (Ed.) Corruption in sport: Causes, consequences and reform. (pp. 173-199). London, UK: Routledge.
Bell, P., Ten Have, C., & Lauchs, M. (2016). A case study analysis of a sophisticated sports doping network: Lance Armstrong and the USPS Team. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 46, 57-68.
Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.
Boardley, I. D., & Kavussanu, M. (2011). Moral disengagement in sport. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4(2), 93-108.
Boeri, T., & Severgnini, B. (2011). Match rigging and the career concerns of referees. Labour Economics, 18, 349-359.
Brass, D. J., Butterfield, K. D., & Skaggs, B. C. (1998). Relationships and unethical behavior: a social network perspective. Academy of Management Review, 23, 14-31.
Bricknell, S. (2015). Corruption in Australian sport. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, 490, 1-11.
Caiden, G.E., Dwivedi, O.P., and Jabbra, J. (2001). Introduction. In G. E. Caiden, O. P. Dwivedi and J. Jabbra, J. (eds). Where corruption lives. (pp. 1-14). Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press.
Carpenter, K. (2012). Match-fixing—The biggest threat to sport in the 21st Century? Int Sports Law Rev, 2, 13-23.
Clark, R. S., & Batista, P. J. (2009). Whitepaper Summary: Do BCS national championships lead to recruiting violations? A trend analysis of NCAA division I (FBS) infractions. Journal of Sport Administration and Supervision, 1. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2027/spo.6776111.0001.105
Collins, J. D., Uhlenbruck, K., & Rodriguez, P. (2009). Why firms engage in corruption: A top management perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 87, 89-108.
Coombs, J. R. (1998). Educational ethics: Are we on the right track? Educational Theory, 48(4), 555-569.
Cullen, F. T., Latessa, E. J., & Jonson, C. L. (2012). Assessing the extent and sources of NCAA rule infractions. Criminology & Public Policy, 11, 667-706.
Davis, T. (1999). Sports law in the 21st century: Intercollegiate athletics in the next millennium, a framework for evaluating reform proposals. Marquette Sports Law Journal, 9, 1-20.
De Graff, G. (2009). Causes of corruption: Towards a contextual theory of corruption. Public Administration Quarterly, 31, 39- 86
Ehrnborg, C., & Rosén, T. (2009). The psychology behind doping in sport. Growth Hormone & IGF Research, 19, 285-287.
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management
Review, 14, 532–550.
Engelberg, T., Moston, S., & Skinner, J. (2015). The final frontier of anti-doping: A study of athletes who have committed doping violations. Sport Management Review, 18, 268-279.
Fizel, J., & Brown, C. A. (2014). Assessing the determinants of NCAA football violations. Atlantic Economic Journal, 42, 277-290.
Feustel, E. D., & Rodenberg, R. M. (2015). Sports (betting) integrity: Detecting match-fixing in soccer. Gaming Law Review and Economics, 19, 689-694.
Forrest, D., McHale, I., & McAuley, K. (2008). "Say It Ain't So": Betting-related malpractice in sport. International Journal of Sport Finance, 3, 156-166.
Frost, J., & Tischer, S. (2014). Unmasking collective corruption: The dynamics of corrupt routines. European Management Review, 11, 191-207.
Gorse, S., & Chadwick, S. (2010). Conceptualising corruption in sport: Implications for sponsorship programmes. The European Business Review, 4, 40-45. Retrieved from http://www.europeanbusinessreview.com/?p=1973
Gorsira, M., Denkers, A., & Huisman, W. (2016). Both sides of the coin: Motives for corruption among public officials and business employees. Journal of Business Ethics, 1-16. doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3219-2
Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1360-1380.
Hill, D. (2009a). How gambling corruptors fix football matches. European Sport Management Quarterly, 9, 411-432.
Hill, D. (2009b). To fix or not to fix? How corruptors decide to fix football matches. Global Crime, 10, 157-177.
Hill, D. (2010). A critical mass of corruption: Why some football leagues have more match-fixing than others. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 11, 38-52.
Hill, D. (2013). The insider’s guide to match-fixing in football. Toronto, ON: Anne McDermid & Associates Ltd.
Hill, D. (2015). Jumping into fixing. Trends in Organized Crime, 18, 212-228.
Humphreys, B. R. (2012). NCAA rule infractions. Criminology & Public Policy, 11, 707-712.
INTERPOL. (2017). Match-fixing and illegal gambling. Retrieved from https://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Crimes-in-sport/Match-fixing-and-illegal-gambling
Jancsics, D. (2014). Interdisciplinary perspectives on corruption. Sociology Compass, 8, 358-372.
KEA. (2012). Match-fixing in sport: A mapping of the criminal law provisions in EU 27. KEA European Affairs, Brussels. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/sport/ library/studies/study-sports-fraud-final-version_en.pdf.
Kihl, L. A., Ndiaye, M., & Fink, J. (2018). Corruption’s impact on organizational outcomes. Social Responsibility Journal, 14(1), 40-60.
Kihl, L. A., & Richardson, T. (2009). “Fixing the mess”: A grounded theory of a men’s basketball coaching staff’s suffering as a result of academic corruption. Journal of Sport Management, 23, 278-304.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Kirby, K., Moran, A., & Guerin, S. (2011). A qualitative analysis of the experiences of elite athletes who have admitted to doping for performance enhancement. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 3, 205-224.
Kish-Gephart, J. J., Harrison, D. A., and Treviño, L. K. (2010). Bad apples, bad cases, and bad barrels: meta-analytic evidence about sources of unethical decisions at work. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 95, 1-31.
Langseth, P. (2016). Measuring corruption. In C. Sampford, A Shacklock, C. Connors, & F. Galtung (eds.), Measuring corruption. (pp. 23-60). London, UK: Routledge.
Lastra, R., Bell, P., & Bond, C. (in press). Sports betting and the integrity of Australian sport: Athletes' and non-athletes’ perceptions of betting-motivated corruption in sport. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, DOI 10.1016/j.ijlcj.2017.11.005
Lee, P. C. (2017). Understanding the match-fixing scandals of professional baseball in Taiwan: an exploratory study of a Confucianism-oriented society. European Sport Management Quarterly, 17, 45-66.
Lentillon‐Kaestner, V., & Carstairs, C. (2010). Doping use among young elite cyclists: A qualitative psychosociological approach. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20, 336-345.
Lopinao, D. (2016). The roots of corruption in US collegiate sport. In Transparency International’s Global corruption report: Sport. (pp. 275-285). London, UK: Routledge.
Maennig, W. (2005). Corruption in international sports and sport management: Forms, tendencies, extent and countermeasures. European Sport Management Quarterly, 5, 187-225.
Maennig, W. (2008). Corruption in international sports and how it may be combatted. International Association of Sports Economists & North American Association of Sports Economists, Working Paper Series, 08-13. Retrieved from http://college.holycross.edu/RePEc/spe/Maennig_Corruption.pdf
Manoli, A. E., & Antonopoulos, G. A. (2015). The only game in town? Football match-fixing in Greece. Trends in Organized Crime, 18, 196-211.
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing qualitative research. (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.
Masters, A. (2015). Corruption in sport: From the playing field to the field of policy. Policy and Society, 34, 111-123.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Miles, M. B., Huberman, M. A., & Saldana, J. (2014). Drawing and verifying conclusions. Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Moore, C., Detert, J. R., Trevino, K., Baker, V. L., & Mayer, D. M. (2012). Why employees do bad things: moral disengagement and unethical organizational behavior. Personnel Psychology, 65, 1-48.
National Collegiate Athletics Association. (2016). Legislative Services Database – LSDBi. National Collegiate Athletic Association. Retrieved from https://web1.ncaa.org/LSDBi/exec/miSearch
National collegiate Athletic Association. (2018). Committee on sportsmanship and ethical conduct. Retrieved from http://www.ncaa.org/governance/committees/committee-sportsmanship-and-ethical-conduct.
Nassif, N. (2014). Corruption in sport: the case of Lebanon. Middle East Law and Governance, 6, 123-140.
Nixon, H. L. (2014). The athletic trap: How college sports corrupted the academy. Baltimore, MD: JHU Press.
Numerato, D. (2015). Corruption and public secrecy: An ethnography of football match-fixing. Current Sociology, 64, 699-717.
Ones, D. S., Viswesvaran, C., & Schmidt, F. L. (1993). Comprehensive meta-analysis of integrity test validities: Findings and implications for personnel selection and theories of job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 679-703.
Palmer, D. (2012). Normal organizational wrongdoing: A critical analysis of theories of misconduct in and by organizations. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Pappa, E., & Kennedy, E. (2013). It was my thought… he made it a reality: Normalization and responsibility in athletes’ accounts of performance-enhancing drug use. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 48, 277-294.
Paoli, L., & Donati, A. (2014). The sports doping market: Understanding supply and demand and the challenges of their control. New York: Springer.
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Pertiwi, K. (2018). Contextualizing corruption: A cross-disciplinary approach to studying corruption in organizations. Administrative Sciences, 8, 1-19.
Peurala, J. (2013). Match-manipulation in football-the challenges faced in Finland. The International Sports Law Journal, 13, 268-286.
Ridpath, B. D., Gurney, G., & Snyder, E. (2015). NCAA academic fraud cases and historical consistency: A comparative content analysis. J. Legal Aspects Sport, 25, 75-103.
Schwartz, S. H., & Howard, J. A. (1981). A normative decision-making model of altruism. A normative decision-making model of altruism. In J. P. Rushton and R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior (pp. 189-211). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Scientific Software Development. (2016). ATLAS ti: The knowledge workbench visual qualitative data analysis management model building (Version 7). Berlin, Germany: Scientific Software Development.
Spapens, T., & Olfers, M. (2015). Match-fixing: The current discussion in Europe and the case of the Netherlands. European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, 23, 333-358.
Steg, L., & Groot, J. (2010). Explaining prosocial intentions: Testing causal relationships in the norm activation model. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 725-743.
Stake, R. E. (1994). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds.) Handbook of qualitative research, (pp. 236-24). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Wainstein, K. L., Jay, A. J., & Kukowski, C. D. (October 16, 2014). Investigation of irregular classes in the Department of African and Afro-American Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. New York: Cadwalader
Yost, M. (2009). Varsity green: A behind the scenes look at culture and corruption in college athletics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Zaloznaya, M. (2014). The social psychology of corruption: Why it does not exist and why it should. Sociology Compass, 8, 187-202.
Zimbalist, A. (2018). Whither the NCAA: Reforming the system. Review of Industrial Organization, 52(2), 337-350.
Zyglidopoulos, S. C., Fleming, P. J., & Rothenberg, S. (2009). Rationalization, overcompensation and the escalation of corruption in organizations. Journal of Business Ethics, 84 (Suppl.1), 65-73.
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2019-07-09
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Kihl, L. (2019). Individual-level explanations of corruption within an intercollegiate context. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 12(1), 43-72. https://doi.org/10.17161/jis.v12i1.11560
