“I learned that sports teaches rape culture”: Assessing Sexual Violence Prevention Education for Intercollegiate Athletes
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17161/jis.v14i1.13428Keywords:
sexual violence, intercollegiate athletics, rape prevention educationAbstract
In fall 2018, 81 intercollegiate athletes participated in Fair Play: Sexual Violence Prevention for Athletes. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of the Fair Play curriculum and facilitation, specifically learning if athletes’ attitudes toward women and/or rape myth acceptance changed as a result of their participation in Fair Play. Athletes completed pre- and post-test surveys to measure perceptions of sexual assault/rape myth acceptance (Gerger, Kley, Bohner, & Siebler, 2007) and gender roles (Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1973). In addition, 20 athletes participated in semi-structured qualitative interviews to further explain their knowledge of sexual violence after completing Fair Play. Survey results showed significant differences for pre- and post-test scores on rape myth acceptance, but not for attitudes toward women. Interview results showed that Fair Play participants could articulate a raised awareness of sexual violence, appropriately define sexual violence and consent, and a rejection of rape myths. Implications include further understanding of effective rape prevention education.
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References
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Boeringer, S. B. (1999). Associations of rape-supportive attitudes with fraternal and
athletic participation. Violence Against Women, 5(1), 81-90.
Brecklin, L. R., & Forde, D. R. (2001). A meta-analysis of rape education programs. Violence
and Victims, 16, 303–321.
Breitenbecher, K. H. (2000). Sexual assault on college campuses: Is an ounce of prevention
enough? Applied & Preventive Psychology, 9(1), 23-52.
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Crosset, T. W., Ptacek, J., McDonald, M. A., & Benedict, J. R. (1996). Male student
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Curry, T. J. (2002). Fraternal bonding in the locker room: A profeminist analysis of talk
about competition and women. In S. Scraton & A. Flintoff (Eds.), Gender and sport: A reader (169-187). London: Routledge.
Edwards, D., Hunt, M. H., Meyers, J., Grogg, K. R., & Jarrett, O. (2005). Acceptability and student outcomes of a violence prevention curriculum. Journal of Primary Prevention, 26(5), 401-418.
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Foubert, J. D., & Marriott, K. A. (1997). Effects of a sexual assault peer education program on men’s belief in rape myths. Sex Roles, 36(3/4), 259-268.
Fritner, M. P., & Rubinson, L. (1993). Acquaintance rape: The influence of alcohol,
fraternity membership, and sports team membership. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 19, 272-284.
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Jackson, A. (2018, January 25). The frat barred from Yale for 5 years is back – and women are
saying they warn one another to stay away. Business Insider. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/yale-delta-kappa-epsilon-2018-1
Jackson, T. L., & Davis, J. L. (2000). Prevention of sexual and physical assault toward women:
A program for male athletes. Journal of Community Psychology, 28(6), 589-605.
Jaime, M. C. D., McCauley, H. L., Tancredi, D. J., Nettiksimmons, J., Decker, M. R., Silverman, J. G., … Miller, E. (2015). Athletic coaches as violence prevention advocates. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(7), 1090–1111
Jozkowski, K. N., & Peterson, Z. D. (2013). College students and sexual consent: Unique
insights. Journal of Sex Research, 50(6), 517-523.
Kelderman, E. (2012, June 29). Colleges struggle with Title IX rules on how to handle
reports of sexual violence. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/Colleges-Struggle-With-Title/132689/
Koss, M. P., & Gaines, J. A. (1993). The prediction of sexual aggression by alcohol use,
athletic participation, and fraternity affiliation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8(1), 94-108.
Krakauer, J. (2015). Missoula: Rape and the justice system in a college town. New York, NY:
Doubleday.
Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L. (2007). The
Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study. (NCJRS Document No. 221153). Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf
Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of
Women Quarterly, 18, 133-164.
Luther, J. (2016). Unsportsmanlike conduct: College football and the politics of rape. New York,
NY: Akashic Books.
McCray, K. L., Sutherland, S., & Pastore, D. (2018). Creating change in intercollegiate athletics: The Sexual Assault Prevention Paradigm for Athletic Departments. Journal of Higher Education, Athletics, & Innovation, 1(4), 25-53.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research a guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Messner, M. A., & Sabo, D. F. (1994). Sex, violence, & power in sports: Rethinking
masculinity. Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press.
Murnen, S. K., & Kohlman, M. H. (2007). Athletic participation, fraternity membership,
and sexual aggression among college men: A meta-analytic review. Sex Roles, 57, 145-157.
Patton, Q. M. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Piccigallo, J. R., Lilley, T. G., & Miller, S. L. (2012). “It’s cool to care about sexual violence”:
Men’s experiences with sexual assault prevention. Men and Masculinities, 15(5), 507-525.
Preston, C. C. & Colman, A. (2000). Optimal number of response categories in rating scales:
Reliability, validity, discriminating power, and respondent preferences. Acta
Psychologica, 104, 1-15.
Rice, P. L., & Ezzy, D. (1999). Qualitative research methods: A health focus (Vol. 720).
Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press.
Rozee, P. D. & Koss, M. P. (2001). Rape: A century of resistance. Psychology of Women
Quarterly, 25(4), 295-311.
Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2011). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Saldana, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sanday, P. R. (1981). The socio-cultural context of rape: A cross-cultural study. Journal
of Social Issues, 37(4), 5-27.
Sanday, P. R. (1990). Fraternity gang rape: Sex, brotherhood, and privilege on campus.
New York: New York University Press.
Sawyer, R. G., Thompson, E. E., & Chicorelli, A. (2002). Rape myth acceptance among
intercollegiate student athletes: A preliminary examination. American Journal of Health Studies, 18(1), 19-25.
Schwartz, M. D., & DeKeseredy, W. S. (1997). Sexual assault on the college campus:
The role of male peer support. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Seidman, I. (2013). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. New York, NY. Teachers College Press.
Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1973). A short version of the Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS). Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2(4), 219-220.
Veal, A. J., & Darcy, S. (2014). Research methods in sport studies and sport management: A practical guide. New York, NY: Routledge.
Weisz, A. N., & Black, B. M. (2001). Evaluating a sexual assault and dating violence prevention
program for urban youths. Social Work Research, 25(2), 89-100.
Young, B. R., Desmarais, S. L., Baldwin, J. A., & Chandler, R. (2017). Sexual coercion practices among undergraduate male recreational athletes, intercollegiate athletes, and non-athletes. Violence Against Women, 23, 795-812.
Zimmerman, E. (2016, June 22). Campuses struggle with approach to preventing sexual assault.
New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/23/education/campuses-struggle-with-approaches-for-preventing-sexual-assault.html
https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201104.pdf
Anderson, N., & Clement, S. (2015, June 12). 1 in 5 college women say they were violated. The Washington Post. Retrieved from
https://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/local/2015/06/12/1-in-5-women-say-they-were-violated/?utm_term=.9c392e7c8ccc
Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-
analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(4), 374-388.
Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, M. M., & Plante, E. G. (2007). Sexual violence prevention through
bystander education: An experimental evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 463-481.
Basile, K. C., DeGue, S., Jones, K., Freire, K., Dills, J., Smith, S. G., & Raiford, J. L. (2016). STOP SV: A technical package to prevent sexual violence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/SV-Prevention-Technical-Package.pdf
Bell, L., & Wilfert, M. (2014). Interpersonal violence and the student-athlete population. In G. T.
Brown (Ed.), Mind, body, & sport: Understanding and supporting student-athlete mental wellness (86-95). National Collegiate Athletic Association. Retrieved from http://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/MindBodySport.pdf
Berkowitz, A. (2002). Fostering men’s responsibility for preventing sexual assault. In P.A.
Schewe (Ed.), Preventing intimate partner violence: Developmentally appropriate interventions across the lifespan (pp. 163–196). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Boeringer, S. B. (1996). Influences of fraternity membership, athletics, and male living
arrangements on sexual aggression. Violence Against Women, 2(2), 134-147.
Boeringer, S. B. (1999). Associations of rape-supportive attitudes with fraternal and
athletic participation. Violence Against Women, 5(1), 81-90.
Brecklin, L. R., & Forde, D. R. (2001). A meta-analysis of rape education programs. Violence
and Victims, 16, 303–321.
Breitenbecher, K. H. (2000). Sexual assault on college campuses: Is an ounce of prevention
enough? Applied & Preventive Psychology, 9(1), 23-52.
Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 38(2), 217-230.
Cantor, D., Fisher, B., Chibnail, S., Townsend, R., Lee, H., Bruce, C., & Thomas, G. (2017).
Report on the AAU Campus Climate Survey on sexual assault and sexual misconduct. Rockville, MD. Retrieved from https://www.aau.edu/sites/default/files/AAU-Files/Key-Issues/Campus-Safety/AAU-Campus-Climate-Survey-FINAL-10-20-17.pdf
Coakley, J. (2015). Sports in society: Issues and controversies (11th ed.). New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.
Creswell, J.W. (2013). Research design in qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Crosset, T. (1999). Male athletes’ violence against women: A critical assessment of the
athletic affiliation, violence against women debate. Quest, 51, 244-257.
Crosset, T. W., Ptacek, J., McDonald, M. A., & Benedict, J. R. (1996). Male student
athletes and violence against women: A survey of campus judicial affairs offices. Violence Against Women, 2(2), 163-179.
Curry, T. J. (2002). Fraternal bonding in the locker room: A profeminist analysis of talk
about competition and women. In S. Scraton & A. Flintoff (Eds.), Gender and sport: A reader (169-187). London: Routledge.
Edwards, D., Hunt, M. H., Meyers, J., Grogg, K. R., & Jarrett, O. (2005). Acceptability and student outcomes of a violence prevention curriculum. Journal of Primary Prevention, 26(5), 401-418.
Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2000). The Sexual Victimization of College Women.
(NCJRS Document No. 182369). Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/182369.pdf
Flores, S. A., & Hartlaub, M. G. (1998). Reducing rape myth acceptance in male college
students: A meta-analysis of intervention studies. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 438-448.
Foubert, J. D., & Marriott, K. A. (1997). Effects of a sexual assault peer education program on men’s belief in rape myths. Sex Roles, 36(3/4), 259-268.
Fritner, M. P., & Rubinson, L. (1993). Acquaintance rape: The influence of alcohol,
fraternity membership, and sports team membership. Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 19, 272-284.
Gerger, H., Kley, H., Bohner, G., & Siebler, F. (2007). The acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression scale: Development and validation in German and English. Addictive Behaviors, 33, 422-440.
Herman, D. F. (1984). The rape culture. In J. Freeman (Ed.), Women: A feminist
perspective. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
Howard, B. (2015, August 28). How colleges are battling sexual violence. U.S. News. Retrieved
from https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/08/28/how-colleges-are-battling-sexual-violence
Jackson, A. (2018, January 25). The frat barred from Yale for 5 years is back – and women are
saying they warn one another to stay away. Business Insider. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/yale-delta-kappa-epsilon-2018-1
Jackson, T. L., & Davis, J. L. (2000). Prevention of sexual and physical assault toward women:
A program for male athletes. Journal of Community Psychology, 28(6), 589-605.
Jaime, M. C. D., McCauley, H. L., Tancredi, D. J., Nettiksimmons, J., Decker, M. R., Silverman, J. G., … Miller, E. (2015). Athletic coaches as violence prevention advocates. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(7), 1090–1111
Jozkowski, K. N., & Peterson, Z. D. (2013). College students and sexual consent: Unique
insights. Journal of Sex Research, 50(6), 517-523.
Kelderman, E. (2012, June 29). Colleges struggle with Title IX rules on how to handle
reports of sexual violence. Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/Colleges-Struggle-With-Title/132689/
Koss, M. P., & Gaines, J. A. (1993). The prediction of sexual aggression by alcohol use,
athletic participation, and fraternity affiliation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 8(1), 94-108.
Krakauer, J. (2015). Missoula: Rape and the justice system in a college town. New York, NY:
Doubleday.
Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., & Martin, S. L. (2007). The
Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study. (NCJRS Document No. 221153). Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf
Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of
Women Quarterly, 18, 133-164.
Luther, J. (2016). Unsportsmanlike conduct: College football and the politics of rape. New York,
NY: Akashic Books.
McCray, K. L., Sutherland, S., & Pastore, D. (2018). Creating change in intercollegiate athletics: The Sexual Assault Prevention Paradigm for Athletic Departments. Journal of Higher Education, Athletics, & Innovation, 1(4), 25-53.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research a guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Messner, M. A., & Sabo, D. F. (1994). Sex, violence, & power in sports: Rethinking
masculinity. Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press.
Murnen, S. K., & Kohlman, M. H. (2007). Athletic participation, fraternity membership,
and sexual aggression among college men: A meta-analytic review. Sex Roles, 57, 145-157.
Patton, Q. M. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Piccigallo, J. R., Lilley, T. G., & Miller, S. L. (2012). “It’s cool to care about sexual violence”:
Men’s experiences with sexual assault prevention. Men and Masculinities, 15(5), 507-525.
Preston, C. C. & Colman, A. (2000). Optimal number of response categories in rating scales:
Reliability, validity, discriminating power, and respondent preferences. Acta
Psychologica, 104, 1-15.
Rice, P. L., & Ezzy, D. (1999). Qualitative research methods: A health focus (Vol. 720).
Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press.
Rozee, P. D. & Koss, M. P. (2001). Rape: A century of resistance. Psychology of Women
Quarterly, 25(4), 295-311.
Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2011). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Saldana, J. (2015). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sanday, P. R. (1981). The socio-cultural context of rape: A cross-cultural study. Journal
of Social Issues, 37(4), 5-27.
Sanday, P. R. (1990). Fraternity gang rape: Sex, brotherhood, and privilege on campus.
New York: New York University Press.
Sawyer, R. G., Thompson, E. E., & Chicorelli, A. (2002). Rape myth acceptance among
intercollegiate student athletes: A preliminary examination. American Journal of Health Studies, 18(1), 19-25.
Schwartz, M. D., & DeKeseredy, W. S. (1997). Sexual assault on the college campus:
The role of male peer support. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Seidman, I. (2013). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. New York, NY. Teachers College Press.
Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1973). A short version of the Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS). Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2(4), 219-220.
Veal, A. J., & Darcy, S. (2014). Research methods in sport studies and sport management: A practical guide. New York, NY: Routledge.
Weisz, A. N., & Black, B. M. (2001). Evaluating a sexual assault and dating violence prevention
program for urban youths. Social Work Research, 25(2), 89-100.
Young, B. R., Desmarais, S. L., Baldwin, J. A., & Chandler, R. (2017). Sexual coercion practices among undergraduate male recreational athletes, intercollegiate athletes, and non-athletes. Violence Against Women, 23, 795-812.
Zimmerman, E. (2016, June 22). Campuses struggle with approach to preventing sexual assault.
New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/23/education/campuses-struggle-with-approaches-for-preventing-sexual-assault.html
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How to Cite
McCray, K., & Taylor, E. (2021). “I learned that sports teaches rape culture”: Assessing Sexual Violence Prevention Education for Intercollegiate Athletes. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.17161/jis.v14i1.13428
